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Human Physiology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is physiology?

A

The study of the functioning of living organisms

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2
Q

Define teleological and give an example.

A

Why something happens or the ultimate consequence it provides. Ex: Heart rate increases during exercise to increase blood flow to working muscles.

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3
Q

Define mechanistic and give an example.

A

How something happens. A heart rate increases during exercise because the sympathetic nervous system input increase to pacemaker cells of the heart.

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4
Q

What are the 4 themes of physiology?

A
  1. Structure & Function
  2. Biological Energy Use
  3. Infomation Flow
  4. Homeostasis
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5
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

The ability of the body to maintain a relatively constant internal environment.

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6
Q

What are examples of regulated variables?

A

Temperature, pH, ion concentrations, nutrient availability, etc.

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7
Q

What are the parts of a control system that maintains homeostasis?

A

Stimulus, Sensor, Integrating center, Target/Effector

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8
Q

What is the feedforward control strategy?

A

Occurs in anticipation of change

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9
Q

What is the feedback control strategy and what types are there?

A

Feedback occurs in response to change. Negative feedback restores normal value and positive feedback enhances change.

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10
Q

What is homeostatic dysregulation?

A

Body can’t maintain homeostasis which can lead to dysfunction, disease, and death.

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11
Q

What are the 3 types of biological work? Describe each.

A
  1. Chemical: Making/breaking chemical bonds
  2. Mechanical: moves things
  3. Transport: moves things across membrane of cell or organelle
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12
Q

What are the types of potential energy?

A

Chemical bonds, concentration gradients, and electrical gradients

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13
Q

What are the body’s 3 fluid comartments?

A
  1. Intracellular fluid (ICF)
    Extracellular fluid (ECF)
  2. Plasma (blood)
  3. Interstitial Fluid (ISF)
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14
Q

Compartments maintain _________ concentrations of each solute.

A

Different

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15
Q

What separates the ECF from ICF? Is it permeable to all substances.

A

Plasma membrane separates the ECF from ICF and is selectively permeable.

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16
Q

Define Lipophilic.

A

Hydrophobic (non-polar- no separation of charges)

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17
Q

Define Lipophobic.

A

Hydrophilic (polar)

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18
Q

What is a passive gradient?

A

Flowing down the concentration, from high concentration to low. Doesn’t require any energy to occur.

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19
Q

What is an active gradient?

A

Flowing against a gradient, from low to high. Uses ATP.

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20
Q

What are the 3 types of transport mechanisms? Describe each and what molecules they transport.

A
  1. Simple Diffusion: diffusion across lipid bilayer (nonpolar molecules: gases, lipids, etc)
  2. Protein-mediated transport: (small polar molecules: glucose, amino acids, water)
  3. Vesicular transport: (very large molecules: proteins)
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21
Q

What is Fick’s Law?

A

Diffusion rate is increased by:
-incr. surface area
-incr. concentration gradient
-incr. membrane permeability
-decr. diffusion distance

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22
Q

What is a channel protein? What do they transport?

A

Channel proteins form continuous connection between ICF & ECF to transport ions and water.

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23
Q

What are the types of channel proteins?

A
  1. Leakage (open)
  2. Gated (closed)
    • Chemically-gated
    • Mechanically- gated
    • Voltage- gated
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24
Q

What are the characteristics of channel proteins?

A

-can only mediate passive transport
-rate depends on gradient & number of channels

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25
Q

What is a carrier protein?

A

Bind to molecules and change shape to carry them across a membrane.

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26
Q

What are the characteristics of carrier proteins?

A

-Never form continuous connection between ICF & ECF (“revolving door”)
-slower than channel proteins
-can move larger molecules
-can use passive or active transport to move across gradients
-has binding sites for transported molecules that displays specificity, competition, & saturation

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27
Q

What are the types of carrier proteins?

A
  1. Uniporter: one kind of molecule
  2. Cotransporter: two or more kinds of molecules
    • Symporter: in same direction
    • Antiporter: in opposite direction (exchanger)
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28
Q

What is primary active transport? What is an example?

A

Binds ATP directly. Ex: Na/K ATPase

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29
Q

What is secondary active transport? What is an example?

A

Uses ATP indirectly. Uses energy stored in a concentration gradient to move something else against its concentration gradient. Ex: Na/glucose-linked transporter

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30
Q

What are the characteristics of vesicular transport?

A

-for large molecules
-uses ATP for energy
-involves changes in the cytoskeleton

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31
Q

What is Endocytosis?

A

Cell membrane pinches off to form vesicle = molecule taken into cell

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32
Q

What is Exocytosis?

A

Vesicle fuses with cell membrane = molecule released from cell

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33
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

Used to engulf large objects

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34
Q

What is an aquaporin?

A

Channel proteins that specifically allow water to cross cell membrane.

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35
Q

What is osmosis?

A

Water moves across membrane toward the side with a higher solute concentration.

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36
Q

What does it mean if cell A is isomostic to cell B?

A

Cell A has equal number of solute particles/L as cell B.

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37
Q

What does it mean if cell A is hyperosmotic to cell B?

A

Cell A is more particles/L than cell B.

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38
Q

What does it mean if cell A is hyposmotic to cell B?

A

Cell A has fewer particles/L than cell B.

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39
Q

If surrounding solution is hyperosmotic to the cell, the solution is ______tonic to the cell. So water will move _____.

A

hyper;out

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40
Q

If surrounding solution is hypoosmotic to the cell, the solution is _____tonic to the cell. Water will move _____.

A

hypo;in.

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41
Q

What is Tonicity?

A

Used to predict water movement in/out of cell that depends on concentration difference in nonpenetrating solutes across the cell membrane.

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42
Q

What is electrical force/gradient?

A

When the overall charge is different on one side of a membrane than the other.

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43
Q

What is the Equilibrium potential of K+?

A

-90mV

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44
Q

What is the Ex of Na+?

A

+60mV

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45
Q

What is the Equilibrium potential of Cl-?

A

-63mV

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46
Q

What is the membrane potential? What does it arise from?

A

At the resting membrane potential, no ion species is at its equilibrium potential. Membrane potential (Vm) arises from weighted contributions of each ion’s Ex based on:
1. Ion’s concentration gradient
2. Ion’s permeability

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47
Q

What is the value of the resting membrane potential?

A

-70 mV

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48
Q

How are electrical signals produced?

A

Gated channel opens or closes which changes an ion’s membrane permeability and the resting membrane potential.

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49
Q

What is depolarizaton?

A

Vm becomes more positive

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50
Q

What is hyperpolarization?

A

Vm becomes more negative

51
Q

What is repolarization?

A

Vm returns to original value

52
Q

During electrical signaling, how does permeability and ion concentration change?

A

Only permeability changes, ion concentrations do NOT change.

53
Q

What are the type of local cell-to-cell communications?

A

A. Gap Junctions
B. Juxtacrine
C. Autocrine
D. Paracrine

54
Q

What is gap junction cell signaling?

A

Direct cytoplasmic transfer of signal

55
Q

What is juxtacrine cell signaling?

A

Direct contact between membrane molecules of 2 cells

56
Q

What is autocrine cell signaling?

A

Signal diffuses to the cell that secreted it. “Note to self”

57
Q

What is paracrine signaling?

A

Signal diffuses to nearby cells.

58
Q

What are the types of long distance signaling?

A
  1. Hormones
  2. Neurons
59
Q

How do hormones communicate between cells?

A

Hormones secreted into the blood by endocrine cells are carried to receptors.

60
Q

What are the type of neurocrine secretions?

A
  1. Neurotransmitter
  2. Neurohormone
  3. Neuromodulator
61
Q

What does a neurotransmitter do?

A

Diffuse across synapse (short distance) to have rapid effect

62
Q

What does a nuerohormone do?

A

Secreted into the blood (long distance).

63
Q

What does a neuromodulator do?

A

Similar to NTs but slower and long-lasting effects; can modify effect of NT

64
Q

What are the receptors for lipophilic signal molecules?

A

-Intracellular
-slow, long-lasting response (gene expression)

65
Q

What are the receptors for lipophobic signal molecules?

A

-Membrane receptor-extracellular binding site
-Rapid, brief response

66
Q

What are the types of lipophobic receptors?

A
  1. Receptor channel
  2. G-protein coupled receptor
  3. Receptor enzyme
  4. Integrin receptor
67
Q

What is the general concept of a signal transduction pathway for a lipophobic signal molecule?

A
  1. ligand binds to membrane receptor
  2. receptor activates intracellular signal
  3. activates effector proteins
  4. produces cellular response
68
Q

What is a cascade?

A

Each activated molecule in turn activates the next molecule.

69
Q

What is amplification?

A

One ligand results in many intracellular signal molecules

70
Q

What is an amplifier enzyme?

A

Produces second messenger molecules.

71
Q

What defines second-messenger molecules?

A

Small, fast-diffusing

72
Q

What are protein kinases?

A

Phosphorylate (activate or inactivate) other proteins

73
Q

How do G-protein coupled receptors work?

A
  1. When extracellular receptor is activated the cytoplasmic G-protein exchanges GDP for GTP
  2. GTP-bound form activates other proteins
  3. GTPase activity converts GTP to GDP
  4. GDP-bound form is inactive
74
Q

What is the GPCR-cAMP system?

A
  1. Activated G proteins activate adenylyl cyclase
  2. Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP.
  3. cAMP activates protein kinase A
  4. Protein kinase phosphorylates other proteins.
75
Q

In the GPCR-cAMP system, the 2nd messenger is.

A

cAMP

76
Q

In the GPCR-cAMP system, adenylyl cyclase is a ________.

A

amplifier enzyme

77
Q

What is the GPCR-phospolipase C system?

A
  1. Activated G proteins activate phospholipase C
    2.Phospholipase C converts phospholipid into DAG & IP3
  2. DAG activates protein kinase C
  3. IP3 opens Ca2+ channels allowing Ca2+ to be released from ER
78
Q

What is the GPCR-phospolipase C system?

A
  1. Activated G proteins activate phospholipase C
    2.Phospholipase C converts phospholipid into DAG & IP3
  2. DAG activates protein kinase C
  3. IP3 opens Ca2+ channels allowing Ca2+ to be released from ER Wha
79
Q

What is the GPCR-phospolipase C system?

A
  1. Activated G proteins activate phospholipase C
    2.Phospholipase C converts phospholipid into DAG & IP3
  2. DAG activates protein kinase C
  3. IP3 opens Ca2+ channels allowing Ca2+ to be released from ER W
80
Q

What are the second messengers in the GPCR-phospholipase C system?

A

Ca2+, DAG, & IP3

81
Q

What is the amplifier enzyme of the GPCR-phospholipase C system?

A

Phospolipase C

82
Q

What is an example of an indirectly gated channel?

A

Ligand activates GPCR which gates ion channel

83
Q

How are signals modulated and regulated?

A

-Receptors show specificity & competition
-Receptors may have more than one ligand
-Ligands may have more than one receptor

84
Q

What are receptor isoforms?

A

The type of receptor that matches to a ligand can have different variations that each lead to a different pathway and action.

85
Q

What is endogenous mean?

A

Ligand normally produced in the body.

86
Q

Define exogenous.

A

From outside the body.

87
Q

What is an agonist?

A

A competing ligand that is similar enough to an endogenous molecule that it can bind to the receptor & elicit the same response.

88
Q

What is an antagonist?

A

A competing ligand that binds & elicits no response (blocks receptor activity)

89
Q

What is upregulation?

A

Increase cell response by adding receptors.

90
Q

What is downregulation?

A

Decrease cell response by removing receptors OR decreasing their binding affinity.

91
Q

How can a signal be terminated?

A

-Inactive or remove the ligand
-GTPase activity of G-proteins
-Inactivate 2nd messengers
-Pump Ca2+ back into ER
-protein phosphatases

92
Q

What is tonic control? What is an example?

A

Signal is always present, but changes in intensity (volume knob). Ex: blood vessel diameter

93
Q

What is antagonistic control?

A

Opposing signals send parameter in opposite directions (balancing input from parasympathetic vs. sympathetic nervous system based on environment. )

94
Q

What is a hormone?

A

Signal molecules for long distance communication, secreted into the blood by endocrine cells.

95
Q

What are characteristics of a hormone?

A

-Elicit response only in cells that have receptor
-Exert effects at low concentrations
-Signal must be terminated

96
Q

What are the 3 classifications of hormones?

A

Peptide, steroid, and amine

97
Q

How are peptide hormones synthesized & released?

A

-Synthesized from a preprohormone that is converted to a prohormone and transported to Golgi complex then converted to active hormone & stored in vesicles.
-Released by exocytosis

98
Q

What are the characteristics of a peptide hormone?

A

-Water soluable
-short half-life
-bind to membrane receptors
-rapid effects

99
Q

What are the characteristics of a steroid hormone?

A

-Lipophillic
-Can’t be stored/ synthesized on demand
-Made in only a few organs
-protein carriers
-long half life
-cytoplasmic or nuclear receptor
-slow, long lasting effects

100
Q

What are the 2 amino acids that Amine hormones can be derived from? What are examples of each and are they lipophillic or lipophobic?

A

Tyrptophan
- melatonin (lipophillic)
Tyrosine
- catecholamines (epinephrine) (lipophobic)
- thyroid hormones (lipophillic)

101
Q

What is the simple endocrine pathway?

A

Endocrine cell directly senses stimulus, integrates, and responds by secreting hormone.

102
Q

What is the complex endocrine pathway involving insulin?

A

Pancreatic endocrine cells evaluate 3 input signals when “deciding” whether and how much insulin to secrete.

103
Q

What hormones does the posterior pituitary secrete? What do they do?

A
  1. Vasopressin: water balance in kidneys
  2. Oxytocin: uterine contractions
104
Q

What are the 6 tropic hormones that the anterior pituitary releases? What do they do?

A

1&2. LH & FSH: reproduction & metabolism
3. Prolactin: milk production
4. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): development & metabolism
5. Growth hormone (GH): growth & metabolism
6. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stress & metabolism

105
Q

What are releasing hormones and where are they secreted from?

A

Releasing hormones increase secretion by anterior pituitary and are released from the hypothalamic neurons.

106
Q

Gonadotropin RH (GnRH) stimulates ______ & ________.

A

LH & FSH

107
Q

Dopamine inhibits __________.

A

Prolactin

108
Q

Thyrotropin RH (TRH) stimulates ________.

A

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).

109
Q

Growth Hormone RH (GHRH) stimulates _______.

A

Growth Hormone (GH)

110
Q

Corticotropin RH (CRH) stimulates _______.

A

ACTH

111
Q

What is the HPG axis? What is an example?

A

Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis
GnRH (hypothalamic) –> LH/FSH (pituitary) –> sex hormones (gonads)

112
Q

What is the HPT axis? What is an example?

A

Hypothalmic-pituitary-thyroid axis
TRH (hypothalamic) –> TSH (pituitary) –> thyroid hormones (thryoid)

113
Q

What is the HPA axis? What is an example?

A

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
CRH (hypothalamic) –> ACTH (pituitary) –> cortisol (adrenal cortex)

114
Q

What is long-loop feedback?

A

Peripheral gland secretion inhibits secretion by hypothalamus & anterior pituitary

115
Q

What is short-loop feedback?

A

Anterior pituitary secretion inhibits secretion by hypothalamus

116
Q

What is the difference between non-penetrating and penetrating solutes?

A

Non-penetrating: cannot move across the membrane, therefore water will move and shrink or expand a cell
Penetrating: Can move across a membrane

117
Q

Facilitated diffusion is synonymase with _____ diffusion.

A

Passive

118
Q

What is the correct sequence in the secretion of a peptide hormone such as insulin?

A
  1. Production of preprohormone in rough ER
  2. Production of prohormone
  3. Transport to Golgi complex
  4. Storage in vesicle
  5. Exocytosis
119
Q

What does phosphodiesterase (PDE) do?

A

Breaks down cAMP to terminate signal.

120
Q

What is an example of a receptor isoform?

A

Epinephrine can bind to different forms of the adrenergic receptor.One form will dilate blood vessels, while the other form will constrict blood vessels.

121
Q

What lipophobic receptor type binds to the extracellular matrix?

A

Integrin

122
Q

What lipophobic receptor type is the fastest?

A

Receptor Channel

123
Q

What kinds of transport can a carrier protein use?

A
  1. Facilitated and Active gradients
  2. Primary & Secondary ATP

Human Physiology (10 decks)

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