Lecture 8 & kennisclips

Question 1

BRIEF

Answer 1

see difference in people with adhd and impaired executive functioning.

Question 2

Hawthorne effect:

Answer 2

participants behavioural studies change their behaviour or performance in response to being observed
- Might find effect in the intervention group just because they are being observed (motivation? Self esteem effect? Or intervention?)

Question 3

Dyslexia exists in all languages…
BUT… there are differences in orthographic transparency and syllable structure.

Answer 3

there are differences in orthographic transparency and syllable structure.
* ● Children with dyslexia learning orthographic transparent languages have better decoding skills than in opaque language 

* ● Children with dyslexia learning languages with simple syllable structure more proficient than in languages with complex syllable structure

Question 4

Neuroimaging Studies of Dyslexia
70 children with dyslexia (on average 13 year olds) 74 controls (on average 11 year olds)
Different reading-related tasks:
* ● Letter identification (are T and V the same letter?) 

* ● Single letter rhyme (do T and C rhyme?) 

* ● Nonword rhyming (do leat and jete rhyme?) 

* ● Reading for meaning (do corn and rice fit in the same semantic category?) 

* ● Compare these tasks to baseline conditions: line judgements (e.g. do \V and \V 
match?) Results:
Neuroimaging Studies of Dyslexia
70 children with dyslexia (on average 13 year olds) 74 controls (on average 11 year olds)
Different reading-related tasks:
* ● Letter identification (are T and V the same letter?) 

* ● Single letter rhyme (do T and C rhyme?) 

* ● Nonword rhyming (do leat and jete rhyme?) 

* ● Reading for meaning (do corn and rice fit in the same semantic category?) 

* ● Compare these tasks to baseline conditions: line judgements (e.g. do \V and \V 
match?) Results:

Answer 4

• ● Children with dyslexia showed less activity in core areas for reading 

• ● And MORE activity in right hemispheric areas 

• ● Dysfunction in left hemisphere posterior reading circuits in already present in dyslexic 
children and cannot be ascribed simply to a lifetime of poor reading

Question 5

pre reading ages children, children with dyslexia, differences?

Answer 5

• ● At pre-reading ages no differences in brain structure in the reading circuits in children later identified as dyslexic versus non-dyslexic 

• ● At pre-reading age children who were later identified as dyslexic had thinner cortex in primary auditory (Herschl’s gyrus) and visual areas 
→ Children with dyslexia had a lower capacity to produce auditory information before learning how to read 


Question 6

cognitive figures of dyscalculia are..

Answer 6

difficulties in visual spatial working and short term memory and impaired inhibition

Question 7

• • Perfect covariation: if x occurs, y always occurs 

• • Imperfect covariation: if x occurs, y occurs most of the time
    difference between tess patterns of covaration between 4-6 year olds?

Answer 7

● With perfect patterns of covariation
- Both 4 and 6 years old perform well
● Imperfect patterns of covariation (more real life)
- Only 6 year olds show consistent good performance

Question 8

Alternative Uses Task Test

Answer 8

• • Forced association helps with creativity 

• • Elaboration helps detail 

• • Fluency of response related to originality 

• • E.g. profanity is not about how to use words, but whether those words are still in line with what is socially acceptable

Question 9

• It is thought that the brain responds to new stimuli by peaking interest in brain activation (to kind of see hey what’s going on), whereas hearing same thing 2 times in a row decrease brain activation because we’ve already heard it so it doesn’t require our attention anymore .. is this true out of a study explained in the book?

Answer 9

Results showed that repetition of the same syllable showed a decrease in ERP in adults, 3 month olds, and neonates.
Can also see comparable patterns of brain activity going on. Indicating that we all have the same processing systems for language from birth onwards

Question 10

In comparing how long the infant is looking in a certain direction can tell something about which sounds infants prefer to hear. This helps us in testing a child’s ability to attribute meaning to sound blocks, also known as …

Answer 10

semantic development

Question 11

Recognising your own name, among a long string of other words, links to conceptual development…

Answer 11

as it means infants are able to recognise that their name has a different meaning than any other word/name.
Developmental stage: first start recognising their own name, then start recognising others

Question 12

Distributed representation:

Answer 12

we never have a one dimensional idea of a certain object; multiple facts and aspects come up that you have remembered before; our brain is very well equipped in combing them to form a full picture of an object that we encounter 
(e.g. look at a picture of a bird and think it looks nice, then also think it 
squeaks, it has bright colours, soft feathers, etc…)

Question 13

Do younger kids than 7 9 years old believe that a lion was painted with stripes coukd become atiger? or that it could be a non living thing? also explain the differences between the 7-9 year olds.

Answer 13




● Younger kids (younger than 7/9 years old) would believe that if a lion was painted with stripes, it could actually become a tiger (transformation in appearance would result in transformation in identity), but they don’t think that a lion could become a teapot in any way
- Think that an animal could change into another animal, but not into a non-living thing
→ Know the difference between living and non-living
● Older kids (older than 7/9 years old) understand that there is a certain, stable underlying identity in being indicating that they think a lion will still remain a lion even if you paint stripes on it

Question 14

Motivation

Answer 14

very important component for success in an academic setting, but also n=in work and sports settings. 

- Provides the fuel to ignite abilities and to transform these into achievements 

- Without an adequate motivation, students are simply unable to fully develop their 
talents

Question 15

Motivation → “movere” = to move

Answer 15

• • An internal state that guides, excites, and continues activities 

• • Causes someone to do something (to be moved into action)

Question 16

Achievement Goal theory:

Answer 16

describes how motivation and task performance are related (in a school or other environment)
* - Individuals their aims and purposes with respect to developing competence at some activity 

* - In order to understand student’s motivations, and achievement type behaviour, we must look at reasons and purposes they adopt when they engage in academic work

Question 17

2X2 Achievement Goal Framework

Answer 17

According to this model, competence is differentiated on 2 different dimensions: Competence definition and competence valence

Original model includes 2 goal types:
● Mastery:
* - Goals in which student has the desire to learn and grow in relation to 
themselves 

* - Master a task and be their best selves 
● Performance: 

* - Goals that are directed at learning and growing compared to others 

* - Want to be the best of the class, not necessarily because you want to master 
the task itself 
Earlier versions included Approach vs Avoidance, a lot of focus is now on Competence…

Question 18

Competence three kinds of definition (absolutions, interpersonal, normative)

Answer 18

● Absolute: the requirement of the task itself (evaluation is whether or not you have mastered the task) 

● Intrapersonal: own maximum potential (whether you improve your performance or devote your knowledge and your skills) 

● Normative: performance of others (whether or not you perform better or worse compared to others)

Question 19

Competence is either something positive or something negative

Answer 19

● Positive is associated with a desirable possibility (e.g. success) 

● Negative is associated with undesirable possibilities (e.g. failure)

Question 20

approach goals and avoidance goals difference

Answer 20

Approach goals:
seek positive outcome 


● Avoidance goals:
averting negative outcomes

Question 21

Mastery Approach Goal

Answer 21

Focuses on the development of competence for its own sake
* - When students have mastery approach goals, they strive to master, or to know the 
type of task they are working on 

* - They are motivated to learn as much as possible in order to improve their knowledge, 
abilities and their skills 

* - Emphasis is on LEARNING and SELF IMPROVEMENT 

* - E.G. “i want to learn as much as possible about school psychology within this course”

Question 22

Mastery Avoidance Goals

Answer 22

• Students are motivated to avoid situations in which they are unable to learn. 
Tend to worry about inability to master a certain task (e.g. “I want to avoid not learning all i possibly could from his lecture” / “I worry I won’t learn all I possibly could from this class”) 
 . Learner with high mastery avoidance orientation chooses to study easier material or solve easier problems, may choose to take easier courses and when given challenges they may 
give up sooner, tencedy to not check results because they don’t wanna know how badly they may have done

Question 23

Performance Approach Goals

Answer 23

Focus on the demonstration of competence relative to others
When students have a performance approach goal, they don’t care about mastering the task itself. Emphasis on doing better compared to other students. More extrinsically motivated. (e.g. “i want to do better than all the other students on the exam”)

Question 24

How does performance approach goal relate to study approach and tactics?

Answer 24

Learners are concerned about performance or grade, and may select more challenging problems as long as they can do better than peers.
Have been associated with a mix of positive and negative outcomes. Positive academic outcomes (e.g. higher grades), negative shallow processing and study strategies. Learn for the exam, and as soon as the exam is over they forget all study materials.
Also associated with high test anxiety and evaluations of abilities which the learner may shift towards performance avoidance goals.

Question 25

Performance Avoidance Goals

Answer 25

• 1) It is important for me to do better than other students 

• 2) It is important for me to do well compared to others in class 

• 3) My goal in this class is to get a better grade than most other students 

• 4) I worry that i may not learn all that i possibly could in this class
• 5) Sometimes im afraid that i may not understand the content of this class as thoroughly as id like 

• 6) I am often concerned that i may not learn all there is in this class 

• 7) I want to learn as much as possible from this class 

• 8) It is important for me to understand the content of this course as thoroughly as 
possible 

• 9) I desire to completely master the material presented in this class 

• 10) I just want to avoid doing poorly in this class 

• 11) My goal in this class is to avoid performing poorly 

• 12) My fear of performing poorly in this class is often what motivated me

Question 26

having performance avoidance goals is…

Answer 26

the least favourable (most vulnerable ion achievement settings).

Question 27

Mastery goals have been found to be adaptive and linked to positive cognitive and behavioural outcomes. Effects of performance goals have been…

Answer 27

less consistent

Question 28

Parental feedback mastery and performance approaches…

Answer 28

● Mastery Approach:
- No relationship with parental feedback
● Mastery Avoidance:
- Positive association with mother + father person-focused negative feedback
● Performance Approach:
- Positive association with father person-focused positive feedback
● Performance Avoidance
- Positive associations with mother + father person-focused negative feedback

Question 29

Goal structures, name three!

Answer 29

1) Individualistic Structure
“…students work on their own and are rewarded (e.g. grades) according to how much they achieve relative to absolute standards, regardless of what classmates achieve”
2) Competitive Structure
“…students are required to compete with classmates for available rewards. … they even focus more on competing than on learning, and refuse to collaborate with peers”
3) Cooperative Structure
“…students work together in groups and are rewarded at least in part according to the quality of the products they groups create”

Question 30

Self determination:

Answer 30

the capacity to choose and to have those choices, rather than reinforcement contingencies, drives or any other force of pressure

Question 31

Motivations are reasons to act… Different types of qualities of motivations:

Answer 31

• • SDT suggests that people have inherent curiosity. 

• • They are motivated to grow and change. 

• • They have tendencies to integrate and form a coherent sense of self. 
They want to gain mastery over challenges and create new experiences, which is essential for developing a coherent sense of self

Question 32


Three Innate, Psychological Needs… (individuals)

Answer 32

• )1) Autonomy
• • When you feel a full sense of willingness, volition, and choice 

• • Refers to behaviour that is self-endorsed, and that you agree with and find congruent 
within yourself 

• • We need to feel in control, have choices, and initiate things ourselves 

• • Will make people feel self determined 
→ Controlled Motivation: have to do something that you really don’t want to do yourself (you feel pressure to do it, you get a reward), not something that you want to do yourself 


2) Competence
* - Need to have a sense of competence to feel good about what you are doing 

* - About the environment, the feeling is about mastering things that are important to you 

* - People need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills 

* - When people feel they have the skills needed for success, they are more likely to 
take action to achieve goals 


3) Relatedness
* - To have a sense of enjoyment in the company of others, to feel connected and maintain interpersonal relationships 

* - Need to feel accepted by others 

* - Need to experience a sense of belonging and attachment to other people 
→ Fulfilment of these needs leads to a higher quality of motivation 


Question 33

Three Innate, Psychological Needs in Teachings ±±±

Answer 33

• 1) Autonomy 
When students can participate in decision making (i.e., feel volition), feel minimal pressure, and when teachers and parents think from a student’s perspective 

  2) Competence
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  When students feel that they have control over the outcome of the activity, experience mastery and effectiveness, and can express their abilities
  3) Relatedness
  When students feel accepted by and connected with others (i.e., teachers and students) and have strong and stable relationships with them

Question 34

Controlled Motivation

Answer 34

have to do something that you really don’t want to do yourself (you feel pressure to do it, you get a reward), not something that you want to do yourself

Question 35

• Amotivation

Answer 35

• • A state in which people lack motivation to act in a certain way 

    
    • • E.g. Student who is uninterested and does not want to do anything

Question 36

Extrinsic Motivation

Answer 36

• • An instrumental thing 

    
    • • Motivation to complete and act to obtain some separate outcome (such as a 
reward, benefit, positive reinforcement) 

    • • E.g. Student who only works when a grade can be obtained or when the teacher will check homework

Question 37

● Intrinsic Motivation

Answer 37

• Drive to perform an activity for its own sake, inherent curiosity, and tendency to learn (something interesting) 

  
  • • E.g. Student who is interested in topics, keeps working although not strictly necessary, wants to answer and ask questions

Question 38

Helpful to view motivation on a continuum from Non Self-Determined → Self-Determined ..

Answer 38

• • Non self determined behaviours are only performed because you must do them 

    
    • • Self determined behaviour gives you satisfaction purely just by doing them 
Extrinsic motivators can be internalised, leading to autonomous or intrinsic motivation
- Activity of what you are doing gets internalised in such a way that the value of the
        activity becomes important for the person, and not the reward it self

Question 39

Four Phases of Extrinsic Motivation

Answer 39

1) External Regulation
Behaviour completely controlled by external reinforcers
2) Introjected Regulation
Follow rules because they should, but not internalised
3) Identified Regulation
Accepts rules because personally important to you
4) Integrated Regulation
Completely integrated the self-determined values

Question 40

Why are gifted underachievers less motivated compared to other gifted peers, who are able to achieve and perform?

Answer 40

• When working with gifted children and they are underachieving, important to figure out why they are underachieving and not performing according to their abilities 
Often see that it is due to the circumstances not being suited to their needs (e.g. child had to constantly work below their abilities, and therefore became very unmotivated / did not have opportunity on how to learn because everything was so simple they were always able to do it, as soon as something more challenging comes they shut down and don’t know how to persist in their tasks) 

  
  • • No strong evidence that motivation as a construct functions differently within a gifted population 

  • • Research shows the importance of providing gifted students with stimulating challenge and teaching them to persist in the face of that challenge

Question 41

• • Many reasons why kids are gifted underachievers?

Answer 41

• Many reasons why this happens 
Motivation, self-regulation, and goal valuation are the best predictors of achievement status (whether someone will be a gifted achiever or gifted underachiever) 
When we compare gifted achievers and gifted underachiever on emotion, motivation, and learning orientation, gifted achievers have a higher academic self concept and they enjoy activities more than gifted underachievers, who have greater anxiety

Question 42

Gifted achievers have higher motivation than gifted underachievers. Gifted Underachievers ?

Answer 42

somebody who is gifted but doesnt show their potential / abilities
* - E.g. child already knows how to read, does it at home but not at school, teacher 
thinks they are not able to do it, even if they can 


Question 43

• Gifted students may have higher need for cognition to engage in cognitive activities, compared to non-gifted students . What is need for cognition?

Answer 43

Captures individual differences in people’s tendencies to engage and enjoy effortful cognitive activity/capacity, it represents relatively stable intrinsic motivation
- More process oriented

Question 44

Mastery and Performance Goals difference between boys and girls

Answer 44

• • Gifted girls = non-gifted girls (no difference in whether they adopt mastery / performance goals) 

• • Gifted boys > non-gifted boys (gifted boys tend to adopt more mastery and performance) 
However, others found no difference in mastery approach / avoidance and performance approach / avoidance between gifted and non-gifted 


Question 45

Difference between gifted and non gifted students..

Answer 45

● Gifted students tend to have greater intrinsic motivation than non-gifted students 

● Children with higher task orientation at kindergarten more likely to be identified as gifted (by third grade) 

- Task orientation was a larger predictor for enrollment in gifted programs compared to cognitive abilities (IQ)
● Gifted students may have a more positive view of their abilities than non-gifted students → gifted students have a higher academic self-concept (the way you look at yourself / the way you think you are / whether you are good at learning, reading, maths, etc.)

Question 46

Task Orientation

Answer 46

Refers to the ability to do an complete work, even in an environment where teachers may not directly supervise your work / when there are distractions present (able to do work, even though you are distracted by what is going on)

Question 47

What is being gifted?

Answer 47

Those of have a high intelligence and abilities, and those who possess high creativity (solve problems in original ways), and people with a high motivation (task-persistence / task-commitment) are those who we label as being ‘gifted’ Creativity: solving or thinking of problems in an original way High intelligence: IQ > 130
Motivation: Task-commitment

Question 48

School Context Self-Determination Theory

Answer 48

• Differences in cognitive autonomy support: 
Traditional classes: teachers occasionally initiate teacher-class dialogues, supporting students cognitive autonomy 
2- Active discussions about opposed problems 
Social constructivist class: fosters relevance by giving opportunity to express feelings/opinions about tasks
  
  • • Negative feelings: peers and teachers responded by convincing student instead of forcing student to do task 

  • • Individual instruction 
Guidance was common in social constructivist, not in traditional class Traditional classes tend to support autonomy learning

Question 49

Need for Structure, difference between chaos and structure

Answer 49

• structureL
• • Clarity (communicating very clearly and significantly) 

• • Guidance (available for questions) 

• • Encouragement 

• • Informational feedback (constructive feedback without comparing them) 

    Chaos
• • Lack of clarity 

• • Lack of guidance 

• • Discouragement 

• • Evaluative feedback

Question 50

Difference between autonomy support and thwart.

Answer 50

• Autonomy Support 
Teaching provides students with opportunities to express their own feelings, thoughts, and perspectives on a task at hand (doesn’t matter if they are positive or negative feelings, need to be a way for them to express them themselves) 

  
  • • Offer students choices (e.g. the form in which they do a task: presentations, essays → non cognitive autonomy; content in which they do a task → cognitive autonomy) 

  • • Fostering relevance by connecting learning activities to goals that are of personal values to students
• Respect
  Autonomy Thwart
• • Control / force 

• • Force meaningless activities 

• • Disrespect

Question 51

Difference between positive need supportive teaching and negative?

Answer 51

• ● Positive need supportive teaching: autonomy support, structure, involvement 

• ● Negative need supportive teaching: autonomy thwart, chaos, disaffection

Question 52

Difference between involvement and disaffection.

Answer 52

• Involvement 

  
  • • Affection, demonstrate empathy and prosocial behaviour 

  • • Attunement, commitment, availability 

  • • Dedication of resources 

  • • Dependability 
Disaffection 

  • • Disaffection / rejection 

  • • No attunement 

  • • No dedication of resources 

  • • No dependability

Question 53

What are similarities between integrated regulation and intrinsic motivation?

Answer 53

● Also closely related to intrinsic motivation…
* - Similarities: both are self determined and autonomous self regulation 

* - Differences: Intrinsic motivation is characterised by interested in activity itself 
VS Integrated regulation is characterised by activity being personally 
important for a valued outcome 

* - E.g. Biking: can be intrinsically motivated to go biking because you love the activity itself, can be integrated regulation because you would love to lose some weight (biking is personally important to you to reach valued outcome)

Question 54

Extrinsic motivators can sometimes lower self-determination .. how?

Answer 54

When you give people extra rewards for already intrinsically motivated 
behaviour, it undermines the autonomy. As behaviour becomes increasingly controlled by these external rewards, 
people continue to feel less less in control of their own behaviour and intrinsic motivation is diminished

Question 55

● Positive feedback and boost self-determination .. how?

Answer 55

• Unexpected positive encouragement and feedback on a person’s 
performance on a task can increase intrinsic motivation. - Helps people feel more competent which is a key need for personal growth

Question 56

Until 7 years of age, children use … standard for competence

Answer 56

absolute

Question 57

• ● In adolescence, comparison … becomes more important

Answer 57

with others (i.e., performance)

Question 58

• Teacher-student and student-student interactions : Need support → intrinsic motivation → high performance

Answer 58

Basic needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness
When needs are supported, intrinsic motivation is reinforced, which leads to higher performance

Question 59

They developed an observation scheme for need supportive teaching in two types of school systems (traditional teacher centred approach and student centred (social constructivist approach)). Differences between these approaches?

Answer 59

Traditional view:
* - Emphasis on reproduction of knowledge 

* - Knowledge is transmitted during learning process and teachers have the 
responsibility to structure the learning process of the students 
Social constructivist approach: 

* - Learning is not so much a reproduction, but it’s a very active and constructive 
process 

* - Student is responsible 

* - Occurs over time (teacher helps student, eventually student is responsible for own 
learning

Question 60



16 years olds have higher self-determined motivation and intrinsic motivation which keeps on rising .. how?

Answer 60

Due to students having more abilities to choose own subjects that they are interested in (more autonomy reinforces intrinsic motivation)

Question 61

Intrinsic motivation development 
Sharp decrease until 12 years → Slow stabilisation until 15 years → Increase after 15 years 
 . We need to be able to understand decline in motivation more in order to be able to lessen

Answer 61

Intrinsic motivation development 
Sharp decrease until 12 years → Slow stabilisation until 15 years → Increase after 15 years 
 . We need to be able to understand decline in motivation more in order to be able to lessen

Question 62

Non self-determined extrinsic motivation remains systematically higher than intrinsic motivation throughout elementary and highschool . Why?

Answer 62

• • Parents and teachers often convey message to students that it is very important to do schoolwork for future 

• • Convey that school work can be really enjoyable and nice to do (can enjoy learning about stuff)

Question 63

As students get older they perceive it to be that teachers and parents provide less autonomy support. Why?

Answer 63

• Due to adolescents development (becomes more independents and needs more autonomy, teachers don’t grant them autonomy, adolescents perceive that they don’t get autonomy) 
 - Can be more causes…