Module 3 - Qualitative

Question 1

In qualitative research, the volunteers who participate in a study are called

Answer 1

Participants rather than subjects. Participants are also known as informants.

Question 2

The sampling method used for qualitative research is

Answer 2

Purposive; the researchers wish to obtain information from specific persons who could provide inside information about the subject being studied.
A purposive sample is one selected intentionally and it includes volunteers who are willing to tell their stories.

Question 3

Key informants

Answer 3

Individuals who have intimate knowledge of a subject and are willing to share it with the researcher

Question 4

In qualitative research, another type of sampling often used alone or in combination with purposive sampling is snowball sampling. This is…

Answer 4

Recruitment of participants based on word of mouth or referrals from other participants.
Qualitative researchers often find this to be an effective way to identify key informants.

Question 5

The number of participants in a qualitative research study is also different from the numbers involved in quantitative methods. Generally, a smaller number is involved (often 6 to 12 participants in many studies). Instead of being determined by the number of variables the researchers might include in a quantitative study, in qualitative designs…
Data saturation is…

Answer 5

In qualitative designs, sample size is determined by the information being provided by the participants.
Data collection stops when no new information is being obtained and repetition of information is consistently heard. This is called data saturation.

Question 6

The three main sources of data in qualitative research are ______ (3)
This data comes from fieldwork, which is…

Answer 6

(1) in-depth interviews, (2) direct observation, and (3) artifacts such as written documents, photographs, and physical objects
The data come from fieldwork, which is a term used to describe the time researchers spend interacting with participants through interviews, observations, and sessions during which detailed records are created. These records include field notes, methodological logs, and reflective journals.
Field notes include notations made before, during, and after contacts with participants to record observations about such details as the participant’s mood, environment, and others in the setting

Question 7

The interview is often the key source of data in qualitative research. The questions are…

Answer 7

Generally, interview questions are open-ended, allowing the participant to respond freely and provide the most information possible. The researcher may use an unstructured interview and then follow up with questions as the informant leads. However, most researchers compile a set of questions that arise from the literature review or previous interviews, and these questions guide the discussion with interview participants.
Unlike in quantitative research, the interview questions may even change over time as the researcher collects additional data that prompt exploration in other directions.

Question 8

Researchers should avoid common pitfalls of qualitative research, which are

Answer 8

They should pay attention to seemingly simple details such as bringing backup batteries for the tape recorder, having plenty of space on the video recorder to complete an interview that runs longer than expected, being sure there is a power source available if using electricity, and the like. A quiet place where the interview can be conducted without interruption is essential. The investigators must anticipate every problem and have a plan in place. The normal interruptions of daily life make it difficult enough to conduct an interview, even without common problems interfering.

Question 9

Recruiting volunteers who are willing to be interviewed can present a challenge. Nurse scientists may find participants by

Answer 9

advertising in newspapers or newsletters, visiting support groups, using the media such as television or radio, posting fliers in places where potential participants might be, or partnering with a healthcare facility that services patients who may volunteer.
Snowball sampling

Question 10

After an interview is complete, it is…

Answer 10

Transcribed verbatim and printed for review.

Question 11

Participant observation is the term most often used to describe the role of the researcher in qualitative data collection. It means…

Answer 11

Role of the researcher in qualitative methods when the researcher is not only an observer but also a participant during data collection.

Question 12

_______ provide an additional source of data in qualitative research. This is particularly true in historical research when the main source of data is governmental reports, journals, books, memos, photographs, letters, or diaries. It is important for researchers to remember when using these sources that they can provide only a snapshot in time. Furthermore, the researcher must determine the authenticity of these sources of evidence.

Answer 12

Artifacts

Question 13

Data analysis in qualitative research involves….
________ refers to the data collection process in which the researcher “lives” with the data over time. The researcher should constantly reflect on the data and make comparisons with existing data as new information is obtained.

Answer 13

description, data reduction, analysis, and interpretation.
Immersion

Question 14

Memoing

Answer 14

Researchers use a technique called memoing to record ideas that come to them as they live with data.
It is important to memo ideas as they occur because it is difficult to recreate them after a period of time

Question 15

Bracketing

Answer 15

A strategy used by qualitative researchers to set aside personal interpretations to avoid bias.

Question 16

Data reduction

Answer 16

The simplification of large amounts of data obtained from qualitative interviews or other sources.
Terms, ideas, or quotations from transcribed interviews are identified to help the researcher focus on the common themes and patterns that will emerge.
Computer software may be of great assistance in managing these data and helping to assign codes, numbers, colors, or other distinguishing marks to sets of data as the researcher attempts to group the data into meaningful segments.

Question 17

The final phase of managing the data is interpretation. which is…
In some types of qualitative research, _______ is an expected outcome. In this case, the researcher must identify concepts and find links or relationships among them to form one

Answer 17

Interpretation is critical because it brings the message of the participants to the public for reading and application. The researcher uses interpretation to provide meanings that can be used in EBP. Interpretation is open to subjectivity because it is likely that no two researchers would interpret the meaning of the data in exactly the same way.
Theory development

Question 18

The four essential elements of evaluation of qualitative research are

Answer 18

credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.

Question 19

Credibility

Answer 19

One of four criteria for establishing a trustworthy qualitative study; refers to the truth or believability of findings.

Question 20

Transferability

Answer 20

One of four criteria for a trustworthy qualitative study that relates to whether findings from one study can be transferred to a similar context; application of findings to a different situation.
Transferability is accomplished through techniques such as eliciting thick descriptions, executing adequate sampling, and achieving data saturation.
Thick descriptions involve rich, written comments and narrative related to the situation being studied.

Question 21

Dependability

Answer 21

One of four criteria for a trustworthy qualitative study that relates to consistency in the findings over time; auditability; findings are reflective of data.

Question 22

Confirmability

Answer 22

One of four criteria for a trustworthy qualitative study that relates to the rigorous attempts to be objective and the maintenance of audit trails to document the research process; findings can be substantiated by participants.
Neutrality refers to the findings of the research versus the researcher

Question 23

Credibility is established through many strategies that are built into qualitative research. Strategies include…

Answer 23

persistent observation, peer debriefing, referential adequacy, and member checks.

Question 24

Persistent observation

Answer 24

When the researcher has spent sufficient quality time with participants while attempting to describe and capture the essence of the phenomenon.

Question 25

Peer debriefing

Answer 25

A technique used in qualitative research in which the researcher enlists the help of another person, who is a peer, to discuss the data and findings.

Question 26

Referential adequacy

Answer 26

A technique used in qualitative research in which multiple sources of data are compared and the findings hold true.

Question 27

Member checks

Answer 27

A strategy used in qualitative studies when the researcher goes back to participants and shares the results with them to ensure the findings reflect what participants said.

Question 28

Audit trail

Answer 28

Documentation that includes field notes, a methods log, and a reflective journal to detail a researcher’s decision making in qualitative studies.

Question 29

The four major types of qualitative research are…

Answer 29

phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and historical.

Question 30

Phenomenology

Answer 30

A type of qualitative research that describes the lived experience to achieve understanding of an experience from the perspective of the participants.
Focus: lived experience

Question 31

Grounded theory

Answer 31

A type of qualitative research that examines the process of a phenomenon and culminates in the generation of a theory.
Focus: process

Question 32

Ethnography

Answer 32

A type of qualitative research that describes a culture.
Focus: culture

Question 33

Historical research

Answer 33

A type of qualitative research used to examine events or people to explain and understand the past to guide the present and future.
Focus: the past

Question 34

Phenomenology is the method used when one wishes to study lived experience. Lived experience is…

Answer 34

The perspective of an individual who has experienced the phenomenon

Question 35

Philosophical Underpinnings of Phenomenology research

Answer 35

Edward Husserl and Martin Heidegger were philosophers whose work inspired current phenomenology.
Husserl’s phenomenology emphasized a way of coming to know through the actual experience of a phenomenon (experiential epistemology) with a goal of describing the experience of the phenomenon.
Thus methodology inspired by Husserl is often called description methodology
Heidegger supported the idea that the researcher needs to know about the history of an individual in order to have proper context for investigation.
The concepts of “time” and “being” were essential to helping researchers have a context to explore the lived experience of others.

Question 36

Phenomenology research
Method

Answer 36

Using purposive sampling, phenomenological studies more than likely will have small sample sizes, depending on the phenomenon being studied.
Case studies can also provide a description of the lived experience.

Question 37

Phenomenology research
Data Collection and Management
3 interpretive steps of phenomenology

Answer 37

Most of the data for phenomenological research are obtained from fieldwork, particularly interviews with people who have experienced the phenomenon being examined.
In-depth type of interviewing that discovers how experiences are put together to develop a worldview.
3 interpretive research steps of phenomenology: thematic analysis, analyzing exemplars, and identifying paradigms.
1) Thematic analysis, the reasons, feelings, and thoughts of participants are explored. Meanings of the categories are analyzed and integrated into a theme or themes.
2) Analyzing exemplars. Researchers repeatedly read data for possible new categories, corrections of thematic or categoric assignments, and analysis of differences among the data.
3) Researcher identifies paradigms, checking the themes and categories to be sure that they are representative of the responses from all participants.

Question 38

Examples of Nursing Research Using Phenomenology

Answer 38

Parse’s (1991) theory of humanbecoming
Watson’s (1989) theory of human caring
Benner’s (1984) work From Novice to Expert

Question 39

Grounded Theory Research: Creating Theory Through Induction
Philosophical Underpinnings

Answer 39

Grounded theory was developed as a way of conceptualizing research information.
Glaser and Strauss
Its philosophical underpinnings are from a variety of paradigms, including positivism, postpositivism, and constructivism. Positivism focuses on deductive reasoning and logical thinking, suggesting that the world is ordered in an organized fashion. Postpositivism contends that true reality may exist, but we can never truly know it. The constructivist view is that the researcher and the inquiry are linked.

Question 40

Grounded Theory Research: Method

Answer 40

In grounded theory, just enough literature is examined to identify the gaps in the literature, but a more extensive review of literature is done only after the research is completed
The purpose of this approach is to avoid bias because a grounded theory must emerge from the data and never be forced by preconceived notions.
Writing in a reflective journal is an effective strategy for raising self-awareness, thus reducing bias. After the theory has been generated, a thorough review of the literature is done, and the researcher compares the theory with other research.
Comparative analysis: (1) obtaining accurate evidence, (2) making empirical generalizations, (3) specifying a concept, (4) verifying theory, and (5) generating theory.

Question 41

Grounded Theory: Data Collection and Management

Answer 41

Data are gathered mainly through interviews
The researcher keeps detailed field notes and methodological logs to record observations and reflections.
Unique aspect: researchers may use the literature, both technical and nontechnical, as data.
Technical literature includes research reports or theoretical/philosophical papers of a scholarly nature. Nontechnical literature may include biographies, diaries, reports, newsletters, and records.
There is no set sample size. The researcher obtains data until data saturation is reached.
The use of focus groups, a strategy often employed in qualitative research, lends itself well to grounded theory.
Uses constant comparison

Question 42

Focus Groups

Answer 42

A strategy to obtain data from a small group of people using interview questions.
Generally, a focus group consists of six to eight people with a common interest but who do not know each other well.
Researcher may facilitate or be a participant observer

Question 43

Constant comparison

Answer 43

Another difference between grounded theory and other qualitative methods is the use of constant comparison,
A method for inductively categorizing and comparing qualitative data for analysis.
The researcher records ideas, thoughts, possible emerging themes and patterns, questions for follow-up, and potential categories for data coding. As data are coded and clustered, the researcher continues to explore commonalities as interviewing and data collection continue.

Question 44

Examples of Nursing Research Using Grounded Theory

Answer 44

Folden (1994) used a grounded theory approach to describe how stroke survivors managed multiple functional deficits produced by stroke.
Mauk, sought to answer the question: What is the process of stroke recovery?. From her research, a grounded theory emerged for poststroke recovery that was labeled the poststroke journey: from agonizing to owning.
Gallagher (2011) developed a grounded theory that focused on the emotional process of stroke recovery.
In 2019, Rannikko and colleagues published their grounded theory relating specifically to dignity among stroke survivors in the acute care hospital.

Question 45

Focused ethnography

Answer 45

Approach that is less broad than traditional ethnography and that examines a specific problem within subcultures and among smaller groups of people.

Question 46

Meta-ethnography

Answer 46

An interpretive review of qualitative studies from a literature search that is purposive rather than systematic like a metasynthesis.

Question 47

Ethnoscience

Answer 47

A method used in anthropology to discover knowledge.

Question 48

Ethnonursing

Answer 48

Systematic study and classification of nursing care beliefs, values, and practices in a particular culture

Question 49

Philosophical Underpinnings of Ethnography research

Answer 49

Ethnography originated from the discipline of anthropology.
The philosophical roots of ethnography are in naturalism, which emphasizes or focuses on the setting and environment of subjects. Participant observation is still considered a key method in ethnography, though many researchers have used more broad qualitative methods to conduct ethnographic research.

Question 50

Ethnography Research
Method

Answer 50

Because participant observation is a key strategy in this type of research, gaining access to a group, particularly if it is one to which the researcher is not attached, has unique challenges.
A gatekeeper is used
When obtaining information from key informants, the researcher strives to discover the emic perspective.
Conversely, the researcher has an etic, or outside, perspective. In ethnography, discovering the emic perspective is essential.
Consistencies and inconsistencies with etic and emic

Question 51

Gatekeeper

Answer 51

Person who facilitates or hinders entry of the researcher into a particular group or setting.

Question 52

Emic

Answer 52

The insider’s or participant’s perspective.

Question 53

Etic

Answer 53

The outsider’s perspective; the perspective of the researcher.

Question 54

Ethnography research
Data Collection and Management

Answer 54

Researchers using ethnographic methods study people in their natural environments over long periods of time to gain a comprehensive view of the culture.
Along with participant observation, the researcher conducts in-depth interviews with key informants.
Three important elements of the interview: (1) explicit purpose, (2) ethnographic explanations, and (3) ethnographic questions.
The researcher should also collect artifacts or symbols of the culture, employ maps and diagrams, and obtain family trees and the like to help understand the culture.
Importance of language.
As with grounded theory, the constant comparison method is often used so that data collection and data analysis may occur somewhat simultaneously.
Thick descriptions

Question 55

Examples of Ethnographic Questions
Descriptive
Structural
Contrast

Answer 55

Descriptive: Sample of language
- Could you describe a typical day at the mill?
Structural: How participants organize
- What are all the activities you do at the mill?
Contrast: For a participant to explain differences or relationships
- You mentioned earlier that ____ is a habit that only a “millrat” does. Would a ____ do that? Would ____ do that? Who wouldn’t do that?

Question 56

Examples of Nursing Research Using Ethnography

Answer 56

Rosenbaum (1990) used Leininger’s theory of culture care as a framework to uncover the cultural care needed for older Greek Canadian widows.
Another example of nurses using ethnography is a study that examined person-centered nursing care provided by 30 nurses in two Dutch hospitals (van Belle et al., 2020
Street (1992) conducted a study that became a book titled Inside Nursing: A Critical Ethnography of Clinical Nursing Practice. She studied nurses and the culture of nursing at a large hospital in Australia

Question 57

Historical Research
Philosophical Underpinnings

Answer 57

The philosophy of historical nursing research is grounded in the idea that historical documents and recordings can be used as research data.

Question 58

Historical research Method
Strategic Sampling

Answer 58

One unique type of sampling used in this method is strategic sampling.
Strategic sampling: Sampling in historical research to locate a small group of people who were either witnesses of or participants in the phenomenon being studied.

Question 59

Historical research
Data Collection and Management

Answer 59

The major sources of data in historical research are eyewitness accounts and documentation.
Interviews with participants are possible, A common criticism of this method is that data may not always be reliable because data are based on the memories of the participants.
Accurate and detailed documentation on the part of the researcher is needed to maximize credibility.
Government reports, professional journals, oral evidence, books, memos, photographs, letters, newsletters, newspapers, diaries, journals, videos, films, official publications, written responses to surveys, and memorabilia.
After the researcher has obtained all sources of data, including the verbatim transcription of personal accounts or oral histories, central themes are identified from “disciplined reflection” . The analysis and interpretation should be logical and easy to follow, flowing smoothly from the data

Question 60

Examples of Nursing Research Using Historical Research

Answer 60

• Lusk (2005), one of the proponents of nurses using historical research, used this method to study nurses who cared for patients with cancer between 1920 and 1950.
• The careful nursing philosophy, a model for professional nursing, was derived from historical research. The author (Meehan, 2012) derived a model from examining the practices of 19th-century Irish nurses

Question 61

Collecting Data for Qualitative Studies
Time Frame

Answer 61

The time necessary to complete the data collection phase of a study may be affected by several factors. For example, vulnerable populations may be more difficult to access, recruit, and retain, requiring more time for sampling strategies to be put into place and adapted
Each observation, interview, and group discussion may take an hour or longer depending on the participants and the depth of description sought. The timeline of a qualitative study is also difficult to predict due to the fact that transcription and analysis of data rely on the researcher’s repeated immersion into the data
Although qualitative data collection methods often require lengthy time in the field before findings are reportable, certain situations, such as emergency response efforts, could benefit from qualitative information

Question 62

Collecting Data for Qualitative Studies
Site

Answer 62

The setting may be subject to change, and researchers may find that sampling needs to occur in several different locations. Sites should be carefully evaluated to ensure the safety of research team members.
Because it may be difficult to obtain access to research sites, alerting the community to the study ahead of time is a good strategy for gaining cooperation

Question 63

Collecting Data for Qualitative Studies
Recruitment

Answer 63

Researchers choose participants who will provide the richest information
A qualitative sampling plan has three defining features: (1) deliberate sampling, (2) small sample size, and (3) a sample that emerges as the data collection process evolves.
Qualitative sampling relies on key informants.
Recruitment should continue until data saturation has been reached.

Question 64

Collecting Data for Qualitative Studies
Collecting Words

Answer 64

Traditional methods for collecting qualitative data have included paper/pencil questionnaires and voice-recording of interviews. Technological advances, such as smartphones, instant messaging, and widespread use of email, have altered the landscape for how and where data are collected.
Participants can create personal audio diaries and photovoice (a combination of visual data with an audio overlay) to share data with researchers.

Question 65

Methods to Collect Qualitative Data
Observation
Participant Observation
Covert Observation

Answer 65

When researchers are engaged in interaction with the participants over time, it is commonly known as participant observation. This collection strategy allows researchers to study phenomena from the inside by employing various levels of participation.
Technology allows the options of complete participant, active participant, moderate participant, or complete observer, with the additional option of covert observation, which is when individuals are unaware that they are being observed.

Question 66

Methods to Collect Qualitative Data
Interviews

Answer 66

Interviews: Conversations for collecting data where questions are asked to elicit information; can be done in-person or through a variety of media
During an interview, the major goal of the researcher is to determine the meaning of what the participant is saying
Before an interview, researchers should prepare an interview guide to ensure that major topics are covered with each participant. The guide includes general, open-ended questions and follow-up questions to seek further details, as well as prompts and probes, which invite the participant to expand on the topic.
Face-to-face, phone, video call, email

Question 67

Methods to Collect Qualitative Data
Focus Groups

Answer 67

A successful focus group discussion involves members who stimulate each other to share their views and explore experiences. Focus groups usually include 6 to 12 participants and typically last 90 to 120 minutes. A disadvantage of using focus groups is that participants may be uncomfortable sharing personal information with others present. Additionally, outspoken participants may inhibit others from sharing.

Question 68

Methods to Collect Qualitative Data
Storytelling

Answer 68

A method of data collection associated with qualitative methods in which researchers and participants tell their stories about the phenomenon of interest
Methods of storytelling analysis differ in their focus on the structure and content of a story. Some break the story down into various components, while others look at the story broadly, without fracturing it. The social context of the story, the type of narrative, and the relationships between aspects of the story such as the who, what, where, when, and why of the story affect the narrative analysis strategies

Question 69

Qualitative Research Methods and Data Collection Methods
Ethnography
Grounded theory
Phenomenology
Historical

Answer 69

Ethnography: Observation, interviews, focus groups, storytelling
Grounded theory: Observation, interviews, focus groups, storytelling
Phenomenology: Interviews, Storytelling
Historical: Interviews, Storytelling

Question 70

Managing qualitative data

Answer 70

Managing qualitative data involves recording, transcribing, and maintaining an audit trail.
- Data collection may take the form of audio and visual recordings, as well as field notes. Field notes are the written documentation that researchers collect that include spoken words as well as the gestures and attitudes of participants that may not be apparent through an audio recording
- The transcript is a written record that captures every word or sound heard in an audio or video recording from recorded interviews, discussions, and field notes.
- Audit trails have three components. The first is transcripts from the field notes. The second is a methods log that researchers use to document their decision making during the study. Researchers also maintain a reflective journal in which they record their thoughts and feelings

Question 71

Analyzing Qualitative Data

Answer 71

• In general, qualitative data analysis involves organizing and coding large amounts of data into smaller, more manageable bits in order to recognize patterns and theme
• Computer software is available to assist in storing, annotating, labeling, organizing, and retrieving data.
• Credibility, transferability, confirmability, and dependability
• One way to support credibility is to triangulate data, which means measuring the same construct using different methods with the hope of yielding the same results.
• Dependability can be met by demonstrating that the findings would be the same if the study were repeated in a similar context with similar participants.
• Confirmability is achieved when independent researchers analyze a study and conclude that the findings accurately represented the participants’ meaning.
• Transferability means that the findings are applicable to other settings or groups.

Question 72

Qualitative data analysis:

Answer 72

The production of knowledge that results from analysis of words
data analysis is “the process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing, and categorizing data”

Question 73

Coding

Answer 73

Assignment of labels to each line of transcript in qualitative analysis
Coding involves reading transcripts line by line and attaching labels to each line. Coding is done to categorize the data into groups. Line-by-line coding done by hand

Question 74

Data reduction

Answer 74

The simplification of large amounts of data obtained from qualitative interviews or other sources
“data reduction refers to the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting, and transforming the data that appear in written-up field notes or transcriptions”

Question 75

Open coding

Answer 75

The grouping of qualitative data into categories that seem logical.

Question 76

Axial coding

Answer 76

The analysis of categories and labels after completion of open coding

Question 77

After the data have been organized by basic coding, the next step is to…

Answer 77

The next step is to generate categories, themes, and patterns. Researchers must search for categories of meaning that best express relevant themes, seeking to uncover repetitive ideas, language, and patterns that link people and settings.

Question 78

Qualitative research synthesis (QRS)

Answer 78

A way to synthesize many qualitative research studies to draw broader themes and extract meaning
“in QRS, researchers translate findings from primary studies into thematic statements; they build comprehensive descriptions of events, relationships, or conditions intended to present hypotheses, themes, concepts, categories, or theories that go beyond the findings in primary studies”

Question 79

computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS)

Answer 79

Computer software that assists in the management, coding, grouping, and analysis of qualitative data
Packages: Roter Interaction Analysis System (RIAS), Transana, ATLAS.ti 5.0, HyperRESEARCH, NVivo, Dedoose, and CATM

Question 80

Five Levels of Qualitative Data
A priori framework

Answer 80

1. Data analyzed according to a preexisting framework; lowest level of data; provides no new knowledge.

Question 81

Five Levels of Qualitative Data
Descriptive

Answer 81

2. Researcher develops labels for data categories but does not explicate relationships among the categories; useful for devising lists of descriptors on a topic.

Question 82

Five Levels of Qualitative Data
Developing a synthesis

Answer 82

3. Researcher explains and explores relationships among themes with logical integration.

Question 83

Five Levels of Qualitative Data
Increased complexity and case variance

Answer 83

4. Researcher explains variations and negative case examples of the research; a step beyond developing a synthesis.

Question 84

Five Levels of Qualitative Data
A product that comprehensively explains a complex human phenomenon

Answer 84

5. The level of research that is considered to be the gold standard; provides an explanation of a phenomenon with depth and breadth as to increase others’ understanding and advance the science

Question 85

For practical purposes, Miles and Huberman (1994) suggested 13 tactics for generating meaning from data:

Answer 85

1. Noting patterns, themes: Items that “jump out” at you; commonalities
2. Seeing plausibility: When categories make sense, feel right, fit
3. Clustering: Clumping or grouping data into categories
4. Making metaphors: Making comparisons with things that people identify with
5. Counting: Looking at number of times, recurrence
6. Making contrasts/comparisons: Comparing cases with practical significance
7. Partitioning variables: Unbundling variables as needed; separating variables that should not be clumped together
8. Subsuming particulars into the general: Asking whether a specific thing really stands alone, or does it belong in a more general category
9. Factoring: Identifying general themes to see which go together
10. Noting relations among variables: Describing the effects of one variable on another and any relationships among concepts
11. Finding intervening variables: Identifying the variables that go together only with the help of an additional variable to facilitate
12. Building a logical chain of evidence: Defining causal links that make logical sense when viewed as a whole
13. Making conceptual/theoretical coherence: Moving from constructs and interrelationships to theories that can be predictive

Question 86

Representativeness
Replicated

Answer 86

representativeness: The degree to which elements of the sample are like elements in the population
replicated: When another researcher has findings similar to a previous study

Question 87

A typical report of qualitative research would follow this format:

Answer 87

Title page
Abstract
Introduction
Aim or purpose of the study
Review of literature
Methods
Sample
Setting
Data collection methods
Data analysis methods
Findings or results
Discussion
Nursing implications
Limitations of study
Conclusions
Questions that arose
Recommendations for future research

Question 88

Realist tales:

Answer 88

A real-life account of the culture being studied presented in a third-person voice that clearly separates researchers from participants

Question 89

Confessionist tales:

Answer 89

Qualitative researchers’ personal accounts that provide insight about data collection and scientific rigor

Question 90

Impressionist tales:

Answer 90

Qualitative researchers’ storytelling and personal descriptions about the experiences of conducting studies.
Researchers speak more personally about the experiences of conducting the study, and they are participant observers versus disconnected realists. Like stortytelling but for the researcher

Question 91

The personal narrative, as a way of conveying the meaning of experiences, has recently received increased attention. Personal narrative:

Answer 91

A way of conveying the meaning of experiences through storytelling

Question 92

Reporting formats
Phenomenology:
Grounded theory:
Ethnography:
Historial:

Answer 92

• Phenomenology: researchers can use realist, confessionist, or impressionist tales when writing. If the sample is small, perhaps a storytelling approach would best convey the participants’ experiences
• Grounded theory: is often presented more traditionally because it seeks to communicate a process that the researcher has discovered, lending itself to a more detached, analytic mode of reporting.
• Ethnography: Researchers often choose the realist voice, but perhaps the impressionist tale would be better to describe information about a certain concept with a different culture. Dramaturgy (a description of the scene or social situation that is similar to a play) can be included in field notes
• Historical: the typical voice is the realist because the data are usually obtained from documents

Question 93

Trustworthiness

Answer 93

The quality, authenticity, and truthfulness of findings from qualitative research

Question 94

Auditability

Answer 94

When another researcher can clearly follow decisions made by the investigator, arriving at the same or comparable conclusions

Question 95

Credibility refers to the truth or believability of findings. Strategies:

Answer 95

Use of well-established research methods
Prolonged engagement
Triangulation
Thick description
Detailed interviews
Data saturation: the time when no new information is being obtained and repetition of information is consistently heard
Peer debriefing: A technique used in qualitative research in which the researcher enlists the help of another person, who is a peer, to discuss the data and findings
Member checks: When the researcher goes back to participants and shares the results with them to ensure the findings reflect what participants said
Constant comparison
Negative case analysis
Reflexivity (reflective journaling)

Question 96

Confirmability relates to the rigorous attempts to be objective and the maintenance of audit trails to document the research process. Strategies:

Answer 96

Audit trail
Peer debriefing
Member checks
Self-reflection of the researcher evidenced by journals

Question 97

Dependability relates to consistency in the findings over time. Strategies:

Answer 97

Audit trail
Peer debriefing
Coding checks that show agreement
Uniformity of responses across subjects
Ability to relate previous research findings to the current study

Question 98

Transferability relates to whether findings from one study can be transferred to a similar context
Strategies

Answer 98

Clear explanation of the boundaries/limitations of the study
Thick description
Checking for representativeness of the data
Audit trail

Question 99

Negative case analysis

Answer 99

A qualitative strategy involving the analysis of cases that do not fit patterns or categories
Used to find credibility

Question 100

Triangulation

Answer 100

Use of different research methods in qualitative research to gather and compare data
Used to find credibility

Question 101

Reflextivity
Reflexive thinking

Answer 101

Using a journal to record thoughts, ideas, and decisions during qualitative data gathering
Thinking that involves self-critique, self-appraisal, and constant awareness of bias throughout the entire research process

Question 102

Ethical Issues to Consider in Qualitative Research
Worthiness of the project
Competence boundaries
Informed consent
Benefits, costs, and reciprocity
Harm and risk
Honesty and trust
Privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity
Intervention and advocacy
Research integrity and quality
Ownership of data and conclusions
Use and misuse of results
Conflicts, dilemmas, and trade-offs

Answer 102

Worthiness of the project: Is this a worthwhile project to pursue? Does it have value? What will it add to nursing knowledge?

Competence boundaries: Am I adequately prepared to conduct this study? If not, what would I need to become so, or who can I get to assist me?

Informed consent: Have I obtained informed consent from participants? Did I explain the purpose, risks, and benefits of the study and allow time for questions?

Benefits, costs, and reciprocity: Does the cost/benefit ratio make sense? Is it fiscally responsible?

Harm and risk: Is there minimal harm or risk to participants? Have any potential effects been explained to participants?

Honesty and trust: Have I established trust and been honest with participants?

Privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity: Have I received institutional review board approval? How have I ensured privacy, confidentiality of responses, and anonymity of participants will be maintained? Have I met criteria for training in protection of human subjects?

Intervention and advocacy: Do I advocate for the right when I observe wrong behavior of other researchers? Can my subjects count on me to put their interests above my own? Do I avoid any real or perceived conflict of interest?

Research integrity and quality: Do I adhere to accepted standards of practice and embrace scientific integrity? Am I absolutely true to the data to avoid fraud and deception in analysis? Have I considered every aspect of evaluating trustworthiness of the data?

Ownership of data and conclusions: Have I clarified who owns my work and the results of it? Who has access to the data, and have I protected the data, and thus my subjects, sufficiently?

Use and misuse of results: Have I taken adequate care to avoid interventions and persuasion instead of remaining in the role of the researcher? Have my findings been sufficiently described so as not to be misinterpreted or misused by others for their own purposes?

Conflicts, dilemmas, and trade-offs: Have I examined all of the possible ethical dilemmas that could arise, or have arisen, from my data collection and analysis? Have I thought of my position related to these possible dilemmas and how I would handle them? Have I taken steps to avoid any possible conflict of interest related to the study?