Module 3: Antartica

Question 1

Location

Answer 1

-southern most continent and site of South Pole.
-closest to continent South America
-population: 1000-5000.

Question 2

Human characteristics of Antarctica, what do humans do there

Answer 2

-commercial fishing for a variety of species
-increasing tourist population
-population are scientists
-permanent human settlements but not human habitation

Question 3

Physical characteristics

Answer 3

-almost completely covered by ice sheet
-beneath the sheets are hidden landscapes of mountain, villages and plains
-annual mean temp -16.9 degrees

Question 4

Facts about Antarctica

Answer 4

-5.4million square miles
-less then 2inches rain per year
-98% covered by thick sheet of ice
-70% of worlds fresh water
-no one owns it but 7 nations have announced territorial claims

Question 5

What is ablation

Answer 5

All processes that remove snow, ice, or water from a glacier or snowfield and erosion of snow

Question 6

What is a nun attack

Answer 6

Very few areas of Antarctica are free from ice. An exposed often rocky element of a ridge, mountain, or peak not covered with ice or snow within an ice field or glacier

Question 7

What is AC2

Answer 7

-a natural boundary separating two distinct hydrological regions (hot and cold water)
-step1: sea water that has cooled dramatically around the Antarctic continent and so become heavier, starts to flow northwards along the sea bed
-step2: it meets deep warmer south flowing water from equatorial regions at the Antarctica convergence which results in an upwelling of the deep waters to the surface
-step3: upwelling of water brings dissolves nutrients with it which acts like fertiliser for the southern ocean and is the reason that the seas around Antarctica are so surprisingly productive despite the cold temperatures

Question 8

Process of movement of ocean warm and cold water

Answer 8

-water moves along gradients it wants to move from where it is warm to cold
-as the water becomes colder it becomes more dense and sinks
-in the oceans there is accelerated further by Changes in north Ayer salinity
-these changes to water temperature and salinity and the deduce of water to move along gradient of each creates a global circulation

Question 9

What are the threats to Antarctica

Answer 9

-global climate change
-mining valuable metals
-increase in whaling
-increase in fishing for krill, squid and fish
-extraction of oil
-construction of land based hotels for tourists
-tourism bring in invasive species
-territorial claims

Question 10

What are the 5 main threats to Antarctica

Answer 10

-climate change (ENV)
-fishing and whaling (ECON)
-tourism (ENV/ECON)
-the search for minerals (ECON)
-scientific research

Question 11

What are the scientific pressures on Antarctica

Answer 11

-scientific research has been carried out in Antarctica since 1898
-there has been a rapid increase in bases established in Antarctica. 1000-5000 scientists
-brings environmental issues

Question 12

What are the problems scientists bring to Antarctica/ what has changed since they have been there

Answer 12

-40 permanent bases
-26 airports
-53 heliports
-50 summer staff and 15 winter staff
-bases occupy areas of land of breeding space for penguins
-oil spills, Bahia Paraiso spilt 250,000 gallons of fuel in the sea
-most populations of species have seen a mortality rates less than 20%
-1995, 21000 gallons of oil was spilt
-Australia considered using their airport for tourism

Question 13

What are the environmental pressure on Antarctica: krill

Answer 13

-krill are the lifeboat of the food web in Antarctica
-1999: 100,000 tones
-2012: 210,000 tones
-rich source of protein and fatty acid which are under development as human food and dietary supplements

Question 14

What are the issues of overfishing krill

Answer 14

-disastrous impacts on larger predators
-penguin population could drop by 1/3
-krill feed in Marine algae which remove co2 resulting in an increase of co2
-global krill industry to grow by 12%
-spills of oil
-krill population has dropped by 80% since 1970

Question 15

What is being done about the overfishing of krill

Answer 15

-a global campaign has been launched to turn a huge tract of Antarctic seas into ocean sanctuaries banning all fishing
-Ross sea in 2016 became a 1.8million sq/km sanctuary
-commission for the conservation of Antarctic marine living resources include 24 national government and tHe EU
-green peace

Question 16

What is the doomsday glacier and why is it melting quicker then the east ice burgs

Answer 16

-120km ice berg along western Antarctica
-air and water temp is increasing. East Antarctic ice sheet is higher above the sea level with less underwater. Western Antarctica is majority under sea level, only thing that stops the ice sheet melting is the ice cap on the land creating a barrier between once sheet and ocean. (Tipping point)

Question 17

What is happening to the Thwaites glacier and why is this a potential doomsday scenario

Answer 17

-3m added to sea level of melted
-moved back 14km since 1992
-contributes to 4% of sea level rise already
-it reaches into central Antarctica which would cause more melting resulting in.

Question 18

What are the environmental pressures on Antarctica

Answer 18

-in last 50 years the peninsula warmed by 3 degrees, 3x higher then the global average of 0.9 degrees.
-distribution of penguins colonies has changed
-melting of perennial snow and ice covers has resulted in increased colonisation by the plants
-long term decline in the abundance of Antarctic krill in the SW
-glaciers retreating

Question 19

What are the changes in ice caps since 2009

Answer 19

-almost 278 billion tonnes of ice has melted away from Antarctica per year. In 1980 it was loosing 44bn tonnes per year .

Question 20

How have tourists numbers increased in Antarctica

Answer 20

-74k visitors between 2019-2020
-18k did not step on the continent
-730 travelled to deep field destinations by aircraft, 165 by yacht, 4500 by air/cruise
-2002/3 17,543 visited with 13,571 landing in Antarctica
-2018/19, 55,489 visited 44,600 landed in Antarctica

Question 21

Who are IAATO and what do they do

Answer 21

-international association Antarctica tour operations
-they require it’s members to abide by the Antarctic treaty system. (Staying 10m away from animals)
-manage tourism is Antarctica to reduce the damage, coordinate vessels, reduce amount of landing, provide a staff to passenger ratio

Question 22

Impacts on the wildlife/ Antarctica from tourism

Answer 22

-may be anxious by an influx of people that may cause them to abandon their nests or evacuate an area all together
-leaves paths and scars on the environment
-oil leaked into the environment
-movement of disease can affect animals
-accidentally bring invasive species
-more people talk about it encouraging the idea of urbanising it
-more wealthy/educated go to Antarctica so influential about spreading the problems
-erosion

Question 23

What was the mount Erebus air crash

Answer 23

-November 1979, flight left New Zealand for a flight seeing tour
-the plans crashed into mount Erebus
-all 257 passengers/staff died
-sightseeing flights were suspended and did not reinstate until 1994

Question 24

Why are whales hunted

Answer 24

-Hunter for meat, bones and blubber for oil.
-in Japan whale meat can fetch up to $1million
-tehir value and in regular hunting practices led to tragedy of commons, the exploitation of resources for a short term gain

Question 25

When was whaling banned

Answer 25

-1982 ban on commercial whaling but only put into place 1986

Question 26

What was the whaling moratorium 1982 and why was it needed

Answer 26

-The International Whaling Commission agreed there should be a worldwide ban on commercial whaling
-1970 the total number of blue whales has decreased to less than 6000
-humpbacks have similar decline
-population of pacific grey, sei, sperm whales have been halved

Question 27

How did green peace go about publishing the barbaric practice of whale hunting

Answer 27

-launched its anti-whaling campaign shortly after the organisation itself was founded
-1973 green peace ships began confronting whaling fleets on high seas
-activists put themselves between harpoon and whale
-brought whaling known to the public

Question 28

What are the limitations to the whaling moratorium

Answer 28

-countries can catch whales if it is for scientific purposes. As a result countries caught mass amounts of whales for ‘scientific purposes’ but actually sold them
caught since 1985:
-Japan: 20,162
-Norway: 10,859
-Russia: 9,357
-USA: 1,355
-rise in scientific whaling is a big problems and peaked at 2006 at 1300 whales killed
-gradual rise form 1985-2006/7

Question 29

Who owns Antarctica

Answer 29

-no one works Antarctica and any claims made since 1959 are not relevant
-this is because of teh Antarctic death signed in 1959 and enforced in 1961. This guarantees free access to Antarctica for scientific research and teh exchange of ideas
-it is widely held as one of the most successful pieces of international legislations

Question 30

What is the Antarctic treaty

Answer 30

-the Antarctic treat was signed 1959 by 12 nations that had been active during the IGY (Australia, UK, US, South Africa ect)
-the treaty applies to the area south of 60 degrees south latitude. Through this treaty the countries active in Antarctica should consult on the uses of a whole continent, with a commitment that it should not become the scene or object of international discord. 14 articles are included
-the treaty has 52 signatures

Question 31

What are the 14 articles in the Antarctic treaty

Answer 31

-stipulates that Antarctica should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes, military activities, such as the establishment of military bases or weapons testing, are specifically prohibited;
-guarantees continued freedom to conduct scientific research, as enjoyed during the IGY;
-promotes international scientific cooperation including the exchange of research plans and personnel, and requires that results of research be made freely available;
-sets aside the potential for sovereignty disputes between Treaty parties by providing that no activities will enhance or diminish previously asserted positions with respect to territorial claims, -provides that no new or enlarged claims can be made, and makes rules relating to jurisdiction;
-prohibits nuclear explosions and the disposal of radioactive waste;
provides for inspection by observers, designated by any party, of ships, stations and equipment in Antarctica to ensure the observance of, and compliance with, the Treaty;
-requires parties to give advance notice of their expeditions; provides for the parties to meet periodically to discuss measures to further the objectives of the Treaty; and
-puts in place a dispute settlement procedure and a mechanism by which the Treaty can be modified.

Question 32

What are in the Antarctic treaty system

Answer 32

-convention on the conservation of Antarctic marine living resources
-convention for the conservation of Antarctic seals 1972
-Antarctic environmental protocol

Question 33

What does the convention on the conservation of Antarctic marine living resources do

Answer 33

-1980 signed
-aim is to preserve marine life and environmental integrity in and near Antarctica
-it was established in a large part to concerns that an increase in krill catches that could have a serious impact on populations of marine life that are depending upon krill food.
-38 countries signed
Protected areas:
-south orkneys 90,000km2
-Ross sea 72%
-east Antarctica 1.8km2

Question 34

What does the convention for the conservation of Antarctic seals 1972 do

Answer 34

-1972
-aims to promote and achieve the protection against scientific study and rational use of Antarctic seals and to maintain a satisfactory balance within the ecological system of Antarctica
-forbids the killing/capture of Antarctic seals expect in specific circumstances
protects:
•elephant seals
•leopard seals
•Ross seal

Question 35

What does the Antarctic environmental protocol do

Answer 35

-1991
-Aims to protect Antarctica for 50 years form commercial exploitation
Aims to:
•no mining
•prepare for emergency responses
•waste management
•protect areas
•discharge of waste from ships regulated
•activities require environmental impacts assessments
•no wildlife taken or harmed
•waste needs to be removed
•harmful material banned

Question 36

Non governmental organisation protecting Antarctica. What are they

Answer 36

-government run and financed organisation monitor Antarctica but most of them have agendas and so NGO were formed
-scientific committee on Antarctica research is a body of ICSU and it is charged with initiation promotion and coordination of research in Antarctica and southern ocean
-SCAR provide international independent scientific advice to the Antarctic treaty system and other bodies

Question 37

Who do ASOC represent and why did they set up

Answer 37

-dedicated to upholding the founding principles of Antarctic treaty. Antarctica should be reserved for peace, science, protection of environment.
-Antarctic is still not completely protected and so they’d et up to have a powerful voice in protecting them

Question 38

What has ASOC current and past work included

Answer 38

-ASOC’s early campaigns focused on dragging the secret minerals framework negotiations out into
the open. At the time, even non-Consultative Parties to the Antarctic Treaty (who have signed the
Treaty but do not have decision-making power) were not able to even observe the negotiations, and
they had to wait for Parties to release any documents produced.
-ASOC managed to shake up this system by obtaining a secret copy of one of the early drafts, which
they distributed publicly. By briefing developing countries such as Malaysia, India, and Brazil on the
secret negotiations, ASOC member organisations were able to spark debates at the United Nations.
-Campaigners also drew attention to the sloppy waste disposal practices at scientific research
stations, and to French plans to dynamite several Antarctic islands and displace many penguin
colonies to build an airstrip.

Question 39

Success of ASOC and effectiveness

Answer 39

-Negotiations on the minerals conventions continued throughout the 1980s. But a major
breakthrough occurred when Australia and France decided not to ratify the agreed Minerals
Convention due to substantial public pressure due to ASOC.
-Another major victory for Antarctic environmental protection occurred in 1981 when
the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) was ratified.
During CCAMLR negotiations, ASOC successfully worked to have a precautionary ecosystem
approach embedded in the treaty. CCAMLR was one of the first fishery management organisations
to put conservation of ecosystems ahead of financial concerns. Although ASOC never achieved its
-they are continuing to grow and looking into tourism, shopping, climate change

Question 40

Positives of globalisation impact on the economy

Answer 40

-economies low labour costs = investment from TNC’s eg/ Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore
-TNC invest money into LICs to help them develop their economy/help after disasters
-G2O gave LICs a voice/world bank
-trade blocs have ensured free trade between those nations involved

Question 41

Positives of globalisation impact on the society

Answer 41

-cultural integration- media g/ news all over the world, food, fashion
-improvement in cultural awareness and cultural diversity
-improved spreading/ sharing of news/knowledge/info
-labour follows have allowed people to improve their quality of life g/ poles to Europe, Romanian
migration, migration from Africa
-improved trade/connections leads to lower consumer prices/wider choice/medications eg/covid
vaccines

Question 42

Positives of globalisation impact on the politics

Answer 42

Political:
-the Antarctic treaty and similar agreements have provided environmental stability for the continent
and prevented conflict as of yet
-trade blocs allow countries to increase efficiency of trade and improve relations between countries
eg/ trade with eu
-investment from HIC’s into NIC’s/LIC’s g/ chinas influence in Africa creates more integration
-IMF/World bank do create common global rules
-trade blocs promote peace g/ EU has meant there has been no war in Europe since WW2 (Ukraine)
-global governance has increased stability for LIC’s through the provision of aid and peace keeping eg/ the UN has had success in Angola and El Salvador

Question 43

Negatives of globalisation impact on the economy

Answer 43

-change in the pattern of trade HIC’s still dominate world trade but an increasing shift to NEE’s
-creation of trade blocs and agreements= LIC’s often outside the blocs so are excluded from some
trade markets
-NC’s profits are repatriated to the home county rather then invested in host country g/ Apple
-widening gap in wages in some countries -related to TNC’s

Question 44

Negatives of globalisation impact on the society

Answer 44

-workers rights diminished -women and children ect.
-exploitation of workers by TNC’s
-disease such as SARS COVID 19 spread more easily
-as transportation improved g/ air travel and there is more trade there are climate change impacts
which could cause sea level rise
-NC’s exploit lower skilled workers in LIC/NIC’s eg/ coke in Columbia workers have died or been
killed in bottling plants, paid minimum wage and work long hours
-growth of NC’s has lead to increased pollution and waste and infrareds resources extraction eg/
deforestation
-migration- majority of our migration of labour takes place form poorer to richer countries means
less developed nations lose their most skilled workers and their tax and spending eg/Quatar

Question 45

Negatives of globalisation impact on politics

Answer 45

-improvements in technology and communication have made it easier for conflicts to arise eg/
Donald trump
-WTO/IMF/WOLD BANK- dominated by HIC’s, favour HIC interests
-isolationists policy in the UK has led to conflict between UK and EU g/ brexit
-trashed of the commons to LIC’s. Chinas influence with Africa
-the Us dear the threats of globalisation and this causing conflicts eg/ immigration on the Mexican
border
-G7/G20- rules for the world based their own agenda