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IB Chemistry > Paper 3 > Flashcards

Paper 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the definition of a drug?

A

A substance that has some type of physiological effect when introduced into the body

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2
Q

What do most drugs act with
?

A

Some kind of receptor molecule in the body

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3
Q

How do drugs work?

A

Receptors generally large protein molecule

With an active site, which has a specific shape

Only allows a limited number of molecules to fit depending on their shape

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4
Q

Drug Development (Explain the stages)?

A

Identifying the need

Identifying the possible structure of a new drug

Modification + Testing the drug activity of a range of molecules –>

1.) In Vitro
2.) Then in Vivo

Synthesis of the possible drug or extraction of the drug from a natural source

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5
Q

Animal Studies dose equation?

A

LD50/ED50

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6
Q

Human Studie dose equation?

A

TD50/ED50

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7
Q

How do we decide which drug to administer?

A
  • Is it solid, liquid or gas
  • How quickly/effectively it can reach a certain part of the body
  • How stable is it in bodily environments
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8
Q

Definition of bioavailability?

A

The fraction of the administered dosage that reaches the target part of the human body

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9
Q

Factors affecting Bioavailability?

A

Method of administration

The polarity of the drug

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10
Q

What affects the polarity of a drug?

A
  • Dependent on the functional group
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11
Q

Tolerance?

A

Human body constantly adapts to the chemicals it meets

Repeated use –> Drug Tolerance

  • Need larger amounts for the original effects
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12
Q

Why would increasing the dose be a bad thing in regard to Tolerance?

A

Increasing the dose

  • ST –> temporarily overcomes tolerance
  • LT –> Greater tolerance
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13
Q

Definition of Side effects?

A

adverse effects which the drug was not prescribe for

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14
Q

Addiction?

A

When the patient becomes compulsive about taking the drug regardless of the consequences

  • Increased problems of Tol and SE
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15
Q

What is aspirin?

A

an Ester

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16
Q

Equation of Aspirin

Displayed Formula

A

Salicylic Acid + Ethanoic acid –> Aspirin

This does not produce a vast yield of Aspirin so Ethanoic Anhydride might be needed.

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17
Q

What is the catalyst in the reaction that results in the formation of Aspirin?

A

Conc. sulfuric acid

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18
Q

How to prep Aspirin?

A
  • Add Salicylic Acid into a conical flask
  • Add excess ethanoic anhydride and mix reagents carefully

-Leave the flask until the reaction is completed

  • Add cold deionized H2O –> convert excess ethanoic anhydride into ethanoic acid.
  • Filter the mixture by vacuum filtration
  • Recrystalise the mixture
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19
Q

How to recrystallize the mixture of aspirin initially made?

A

Re-dissolve aspirin with hot ethanol

Filter using vacuum filtration

Cool in ice bath

Filter mixture again

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20
Q

does Aspirin have an OH group?

A

yeah

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21
Q

How soluble is Aspirin in water?

A

Aspirin is not that soluble in water due to the large non-polar phenyl group

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22
Q

How can aspirin’s aqueous solubility be improved?

A

Neutralisation with a base to give it ionic sodium salt

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23
Q

Mechanism of Penicillin?

A

Structure: Beta Lactam ring

Four membered ring is strained

Makes carboxamide group reactive

Ring opens up and reacts with the enzyme that is responsible for the formation of vital cross-links in the new bacterial cell walls

Cell wall is weakened and permeable

Leads to the bacteria taking too much water and dying

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24
Q

How does Aspirin work?

A

Mild Analgesic

functions by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances that cause pain

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25
Q

How else can aspirin be used?

A

Can be used as an anticoagulant

–>

Helps to prevent blood clots

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26
Q

Why do people who take aspirin are not advised to drink alcohol?

A

synergistic effect –> caused by the presence of both drugs that is greater than the sum of their individual effects

can lead to bleeding in the stomach

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27
Q

Names of all functional groups

A

SEE

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28
Q

What are two reasons for tolerance of drugs?

A
  • More you use –> Greater Metabolism –> More drug excreted and less remains in the body
  • Body adapts by desensitizing target molecules which drugs bind to so it is not able to produce the same effect
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29
Q

What is the mutation that is resistant to penicilin

A

penicilinase

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30
Q

What do strong analgesics do?

A
  • Temporarily bind to opiod receptors in brain whch block transmission of pain signals
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31
Q

Advantages of taking Opiates?

A
  • Relief of severe pain
  • Used in cancer patients
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32
Q

Disadvatages of taking opiates?

A
  • Naseau and vomiting
  • Constipation
  • Respitory Depression
  • Physical and pshycological dependence
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33
Q

how do mild analgesics relieve pain?

A

Intercepts the pain stimulus at the source

Interferes with the production of substances that cause pain.

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34
Q

what is the definition of a synergistic effect?

A

an effect caused by the presence of both drugs that is greater than the sum of ther individual effects

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35
Q

Why should you not take alcohol with aspirin?

A

Synergistic effect

Can lead to bleeding in the stomach

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36
Q

Explain the importance of beta-lactam ring in penicilins?

A
  • Interferes with enzyme responsible for bacterial cell wall
  • Beta lactam ring is strained
  • Has smaller bond angles
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37
Q

Why is the over prescription of penicillin a bad thing?

A
  • Bacteria can become resistant to the antibiotic due to a greater number of bacteria being exposed
  • A greater probability of resistance developing
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38
Q

Explain how a strong analgesic relieves pain?

A
  • Crosses the brain blood barrier
  • Binds to opiod receptor sites in the brain
  • Supresses the transmission of pain receptors in the brain
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39
Q

What are two effects of an excess of stomach acid?

A

Acid Reflux - A burning sensation when acid flows up into the oesophagus

Peptic Ulcers - a painful open sore in the lining of the stomach or small intestine

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40
Q

What are antacids?

A

Things that can simply neutralise excess acids in the stomach

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41
Q

What are some examples of antacids?

A

Calcium Hydroxide

Magnesium Hydroxide

Aluminium Hydroxide

Sodium Carbonate

Sodium Bicarbonate

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42
Q

Which drugs inhibit the production of Acid?

A
  • H2 agonists
  • Proton Pump Inhibitors
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43
Q

How do H2 agonists inhbit the production of Acid?

A
  • (rantadine) Zantac block the action of histamine
  • Rantidine molecule prevents the secretion of this acid by reversibly binding to the H2 histamine receptors in the cell
  • Part of Rantadine molecule has a similar shape to histamine and so fits into the receptor side
  • Inhibits the secretion of acid by the cells in the lining of the stomach
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44
Q

How do Proton Pump Inhibitors inhibit the production of acid?

A

Prilosec and Nexium

  • Blocks the enzyme responsible for pumping the Hydrogen ions out of the cells and into the stomach
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45
Q

Can you describe how omeprazole works to reduce the secretion of acid?

A
  • Omeprazole is less polar
  • More easily crosses the lipid base cell membrane into the cellls
  • Becomes charged to creates and active form
  • Active form binds to proton pump
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46
Q

Why are Proton Pump inhibitors more effective than H2 Agonists in prohibiting thr secretion of acid in the stomach?

A
  • Much more effective than H2 agonists because their action is irreversible, so they permanently deactivate the proton pump
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47
Q

What is the point of the buffer solution?

A

When you add medicine into your body might be acidic or baisc so the pH of the medicine might affect your body.

The buffer solution keeps your pH constant in the body when a drug is administered

A buffer solution is added to the drug formulation

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48
Q

What is the definition of a buffer solution?

A

A buffer solutiuon is one that resists change in pH when small amounts of acid or alkali are added

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49
Q

Why do you not suddenly stop taking Prilosec or Nexium (PPI)?

A

You run the risk of a rebound effect (acid reflux)

  • You have to decrease the dose gradually
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50
Q

equation of pH?

A

pH = pKa + log([A-])
[HA}

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51
Q

Are viruses always parasitic?

A

Yes

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52
Q

Why are viruses more difficult to target than bacteria with drugs?

A

-Viruses lack a cell structure and only reproduce inside living cells

  • Many viruses can mutate rather easily –> leading to changes in the composition of their protein coat –> leading to the resistance to drugs
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53
Q

How do Antiviral drugs work?

A
  • They alter the cell’s genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply
  • Preventing the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity involved with either replication of DNA within the host cell, or the release of the new viruses
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54
Q

What are examples of anti-viral drugs?

A

Tamiflu and Zanamavir

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55
Q

How do Zanamivir and Tamiflu work?

A

They inhbit the enzyme neuraminidase

Neuraminidase is produced by the virus as part of the mechanism that allows the new viruses to leave the host cell after replication

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56
Q

Where are synthetic drugs always made?

A

Labs

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57
Q

What is the definition of Metabolism?

A

The speed and the ability to absorb and use the medicine

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58
Q

State one factor that can affect the ability of the body to absorb a drug?

A
  • Age
  • Weight
  • Method of Administration
  • Polarity
  • Solubility
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59
Q

Therapeutic Effect

A

A desirable and beneficial effect; it alleviates symptoms or treats a particular disease

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60
Q

Low Level Waste:

A
  • Items contaminated with radioactive material.
  • Can be stored on site until it has decayed  Landfill sites.
  • Some are incinerated to reduced volume and disperse over a wider area
61
Q

High Level Waste:

A
  • Spent fuel rods and materials from nuclear reactors.
  • Stored in concrete casks inside concrete bunkers
  • Underground in stable areas/Deep in Ocean
62
Q

Therapeutic Window

A

The range of dosages between the minimum amounts of the drug that produce the desired effect and a medically unacceptable adverse effect

63
Q

Give some examples of mild analgesics?

A

Ibuprofen and paracetamol

64
Q

What is the definition of an analgesic?

A

Any medicine, such as aspirin, that reduces pain without inducing unconsciousness.

65
Q

Can you explain the structure of morphine and what this means for its solubility?

A

Morphine has two hydroxyl functional groups

–> Adds Water solubility to the structure

66
Q

How polar is morphine?

A

Fairly polar

67
Q

What is the structure of codeine?

A
  • Has one hydroxyl functional group
  • Substituted with an O bonded
  • To a methyl alkyl functional group
  • Which forms an ether
68
Q

How polar and soluble is codeine in comparison to morphine??

A
  • Slightly decreased polarity
  • Lower water solubility
69
Q

Why might codeine be more potent than morphine but less than diamorphine?

A
  • It has a lower polarity and solubility in water allowing it to cross into the brain barrier more easily than Morphine
  • However, Codeine is less effective at binding to the **receptors which means it has ** 1/10 the potency of Diamorphine

-

70
Q

What is codeine suitable for?

A

Mild to moderate pain

71
Q

Can you talk about the structure of Diamorphine?

A
  • 2 Hydroxyl functional groups
  • Substituted with O
  • Bonded to an acetyl side chains
  • Which forms two ester groups
72
Q

How polar and soluble is diamorphine?

A

It is not very polar (in comparison to morphine and codeine) and not very soluble in water either

73
Q

How bioavailable is diamorphine?

A

35% (when taken orally)

74
Q

How is codeine usually made?

A
  • You can create it synthentically by reacting morphine and Iodomethane
  • This creates an ether linkage
  • However, this product is unfortuanately reversed by the liver .
  • Essentially, we get back to morphine and Iodomethane.
75
Q

How to make codeine from morphine?

A

Methylation reaction

Morphine + CH3I (in an alkaline solution)

This makes an ether linkage

76
Q

How to make Diamorphine?

A

Not found naturally in opium latex

  • Only made by reacting morphine with ethanoic acid
  • Called an esterification reaction
  • Hydroxyl Group from Morphine reacts with Carboxylic Group of Ethanoic Acid
  • Forms an ester linkage
  • This reaction also results in the production of water
77
Q

Morphine + Ethanoic Acid?

A

Diamorphine + Water

78
Q

Which of the three opiates (morphine, codeine or diamorphine) is the most polar?

A

Morphine contains two hydroxyl funtional groups, which are more polar than the methyl group on codeine and the acetyl groups on diamorphine.

79
Q

Can codeine be made naturally?

A

I mean … kinda.

Opium Latex holds around 3% of Codeine

HOWEVER, the easiest way to make it is through a methylation reaction.

80
Q

Can codeine be made naturally?

A

I mean … kinda.

Opium Latex holds around 3% of Codeine

HOWEVER, the easiest way to make it is through a methylation reaction.

81
Q

What are some side effects of diamorphine on the body?

A
  • Diamorphine (very little amount of non-polar groups)
  • Diamorphine can only bind to one receptor –> so the effect of diamorphine is immediate and does not last long
82
Q

What are some of the side effects of Codeine?

A

Codeine is known as a prodrug;

  • A drug that is converted to a more active form once inside the human body.
  • However, this conversion is quite slow and other products are also made, which have no medicinal effect.
83
Q

State the name of the opiates that are produced within the human body.

A

Endorphins

84
Q

What is the relative order of effectiveness of the three opiates from lowest to highest?

A

Diamorphine

Morphine

Codeine

85
Q

Why is Codeine less effective at treating pain than morphine?

A

Codeine, although less polar and more capable of passing into the brain than morphine, is only about 1/10 the strength of morphine.

This is because morphine has a much greater affinity for the endorphin receptors in the brain compared to codeine.

About 10% of codeine is metabolised in the liver into morphine, although this can vary between individuals.

86
Q

What is the most common method of administration of morphine?

A

Injection (100% bioavailability)

Pill (30% bioavailability)

87
Q

What are some advantages of using Codeine?

A
  • They are suitable for mild pain
  • Drug is slowly metabolised so fewer doses are required
  • Convenient Administration
88
Q

How addictive are morphine, codeine and diamorphene relatively?

A

Morphine - Moderately addictive (Withdrawal if taken for extended doses)

Codeine - Addiction is possible

Diamorphene - Highly Addictive (must be injected) –> Drug metabolises so frequently more dosages are required

89
Q

What is codeine used for?

A

Minor pains such as headaches or cough suppression

90
Q

What is Morphine used for?

A
  • Moderate to severe pain (following surgery, childbirth or after breaking a bone)
91
Q

What is diamorphine used for?

A

Alleviates severe pain

92
Q

What are some common side effects and negative side effects of morphine?

A

Drowsiness, weight loss

More negative side effects:

  • Blurred visions and chest pain
93
Q

Symptoms of an overdose of morphine?

A
  • Muscle spasms
  • Fevers
94
Q

How does a doctor take his patient off morphine?

A

When patients have become accustomed to the medication they can experience physiological addiction and withdrawal to the medication if removed suddenly.

95
Q

How are Morphine, Codeine and Diamorphine taken?

A

Morphine:

  • Oral tablet or liquid
  • Intramuscular or intravenous injection (100% bioavailability)

Codeine:

  • Oral ingestion

Diamorphine:

  • Oral ingestion
  • Intravenous ingestion
96
Q

Why cant an Antancid be a very strong base?

A
  • It could cause damage to the mouth on the journey to the stomach
97
Q

How much acid does an antacid neutralise and why?

A

An antacid does not neutralise all of the acid to leave sufficient acid for digestion

98
Q

Why are other additives used to an antacid?

A

Contains colouring and anti foaming agents to decrease the bloating from the carbon dioxide gas

99
Q

Sodium Bicarbonate + Hydrochloric acid equation?

A

NaHCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

100
Q

What type of issues are Antacids useful for?

A
  • Useful for ocassional or mild stomach acid issues
101
Q

Why is excessive use of Antacids bad for you?

A

Chronic or excessive use of antacids is not recommended for long-term issues of excess stomach acid because it can worsen the problem.

102
Q

Buffer Solution equation?

A

H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ HCO3- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

103
Q

What is usually wasted the most in a chemical reaction?

A

The solvent (80-90%)

104
Q

Can you give some examples of Polar and Non-Polar Solvents?

A

Polar: Water + Alchohols

Non-Polar: Alkanes, Ethers, and Benzene

105
Q

What is more harmful, Polar or Non-Polar solvents?

A

Non-Polar Solvents

106
Q

How do you normally dispose of polar solvents?

A
  • Filtration/Distillation to remove impurities
  • Water can then be disposed of normally
  • Alcohol would need to be diluted to very low conc
  • They can be disposed of as waste water or incinerated with a combustion reaction
107
Q

Weaknesses of disposing Non-Polar solvents such as Benzene or Hexane

A

Benzene and its derivatives are often carcinogenic (cancer-causing) to humans and animals and can inhibit photosynthesis in plants.

Hexane is a neurotoxin that can cause numbness and weakness in the arms and legs and stunted growth in plants.

108
Q

Name 6 Green Chemistry principles?

A
  • Prevention of Waste
  • Atom Economy
  • Less hazard Chemical designs
  • Safe and restricted use for solvents
  • Energy Efficiency
  • Design for Degradation
109
Q

Why do we look at Atom Economy when we are making Drugs etc:

A
  • All materials in a reaction should be used up
110
Q

How can we dispose of Solvent Waste Solution?

A
  • Incinerate it via Combustion
111
Q

What are some benefits of using Combustion to dispose Solvent Waste Solutions?

A
  • The energy produced from the combustion reaction can be used as a source of energy for other reactions
112
Q

What are the negatives of using Combution as a means of disposing of Waste Solution?

A

Combustion produces CO2 (has negative effects on the environmet)

113
Q

Can you name two examples of Bad solvents?

A

-Benzene

  • Chlorinated Hydrocarbons bad for the stratosphere (Free radicals can destroy the ozone layer molecules blud!)
114
Q

How can Solvent Waste be recycled?

A

Fractional Distillation

  • Seperates the solvents by heating them up to their corresponding Boiling points
  • You can then recycle the good ones
115
Q

Name some problems with using Fractional Distillation to recycle Solvent WASTE solution? And why would these disadvantages be irrelevant?

A

High Initial Cost

  • However, they save more energy in the LT
116
Q

Can you give a succesful example of Drug Synthesis?

A
  • Tamiflu is very much needed as a medicine
  • Needs shikimic acid for its synthetic production
  • Main problem is: Shikimic Acid is made from found naturally only in Star Anise Plant
  • BUT, High Demand and Low Service, may cause the population of Star Anise Plant to rapidly decrease
  • Plant no no good for the environment
  • Scientists succesfully found a way to produce shikimic acid without the use of plants
  • We create it using E.Coli in the process of Bio Synthesis
117
Q

What are the conditions needed for E.Coli to make Oseltamivir (Tamiflu)

A
  • Needs sugar (carbohydrates)
  • Controlled Temperature so that we can make lots of it without using too much energy or waste
118
Q

What is the synthesis of Oseltamivir from Shikimic Acid without plants an example of?

A
  • Green Chemistry at its finest!
  • Example of using minimum energy consumption + waste production to produce larger quantities of shikimic acid
119
Q

How can Benzene be disposed of?

A
  • Incinerated via Combustion
  • Has to be diluted with H20
  • Biodegradation –> More ‘Green’ as it produces CO2 at a slower rate
120
Q

What are nuclear medicines used for and how are they useful?

A

They use radioactive substances to dignose and treat diseases wie krebs

121
Q

Uses of Radioactive Isotopes?

A

X-rays

122
Q

How do we produce Nuclear Waste?

A

When we do not use radioactive isotopes

and

Materials/Equipments have come into contact with radioactive isotopes

123
Q

Why might Nuclear Waste be harmful?

A

They could still be producing Gamma Rays

  • Can cause damage at the cellular level
124
Q

What does the risk of serious health effects from gamma radiation depend upon?

A
  • The amount of dosage/The amount of time
125
Q

What happens when you have high exposure to Gamma Radiation?

A

‘Radiation Sickness’

126
Q

Salicylic Acid + Ethanoic Anhydride

A

–> Aspirin vs Acetic Acid

127
Q

SHOW THE STRUCTURAL FORMULA FOR THE FORMATION OF ASPIRIN

A

SEE IN TEXTBOOK

128
Q

SHOW THE STRUCTURAL FORMULA FOR THE FORMATION OF ASPIRIN

A

SEE IN TEXTBOOK

129
Q

What catalyst is used in the aspirin reaction?

A

Acid: H2SO4

Also needs heat to drive the reaction forward

130
Q

One way to increase the purity of aspirin?

A

To improve the purity: Recrystallisation

  • Dissolve aspirin in ethanol + add water and then cool it down with ice
  • When we cool it the aspirin starts to form again
  • Then we filtrate it

Ehtanol has non-polar + polar properties –> The impurities will be dissolved and rinsed away with the ethanol

131
Q

One way to measure the purity of aspirin?

A

Infrared spectroscopy

  • The Bond asborption should be around 1700 cm for the CO double bonds
  • The Bond absorption should be around 2800 for O-H bonds

The Infrared Spectroscopy tells you what functional groups are expected in aspirin

132
Q

Opiates

A

strong analgesics

work on opiod receptors in the brain

133
Q

How to convert morphine to codeine

A

METHYLATION

134
Q

How to draw ionic form of aspirin

A

see

135
Q

salicylic acid + ethanoic anhydride

A

Aspirin + CH3COOH

136
Q

THE HIGHER THE THERAPEUTIC I THE…

A

LOWER THE CHANCE OF DYING

X TIMES THE DOSE

137
Q

State how penicillins may be modified to increase their effectiveness.

A

Modify the side chain

138
Q

What is the difference between bioavailability and solubility?

A

SEE

139
Q

Describe how penicillin combats bacterial infections.

A

ring is «sterically» strained

inhibits enzyme/transpeptidase «in bacteria» that produces cell walls

prevents cross-linking of bacterial cell walls

cells absorb water AND burst

cells cannot reproduce

140
Q

ED50

A

the minimal effective dose for 50% of the population (animal and human trials).

141
Q

LD50

A

the lethal dose for 50% of the population (animal trials).

142
Q

TD50

A

the toxic dose for 50% of the population (human trials).

143
Q

In animal testing, the therapeutic index is calculated using the lethal dose and the minimum effective dose. Explain for kids why the minimum effective dose is used instead of the maximum?

A

If they used the maximum effective dose, they might see really good results, but they could also see more side effects and risks

144
Q

A medicine with a low therapeutic index would be considered to be…

A

not safe, but could be used with careful monitoring.

145
Q

Explain why diamorphine crosses the brain blood barrier more easily

A

blood-brain barrier is hydrophobic/non-polar/made of lipids ✔

morphine has hydroxyl/OH «groups»/is more polar AND diamorphine hasester/ethanoate/OCOCH3/acetate «groups»/is less polar/is lipid soluble ✔

146
Q

State one advantage of using morphine as an analgesic

A

effective against strong pain

147
Q

Explain, with reference to the action of penicillin, why new penicillins with different side-chains need to be produced.

A

bacterial resistance «to older penicillins/antibiotics» ✔

prevent penicillinase/beta-lactamase/enzyme in bacterium to deactivate/open penicillin/beta-lactam ring ✔

148
Q

State and explain the relative solubility of codeine in water compared to morphine and diamorphine

A

codeine less soluble «in water» than morphine AND more soluble than diamorphine
OR
morphine > codeine > diamorphine «in terms of solubility in water» ✔

more/stronger/greater hydrogen/H bonding «due to more hydroxyl groups leads to greater solubility» ✔

149
Q

State the natural source from which codeine, morphine and diamorphine are obtained.

A

opium poppy/plants/seeds ✔

IB Chemistry (18 decks)

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