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PSYC1002 > Mental Abilities > Flashcards

Mental Abilities Flashcards

1
Q

What is intelligence?

A

The ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills.

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2
Q

Mental abilities

A

The capacity to perform the higher mental processes of reasoning, remembering, understanding and problem solving

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3
Q

Why study mental abilities and intelligence?

A

Helps us understand ourselves
It can help us select people (school, job)
help us understand cognitive impairments after brain injury or in developmental disorders
help us understand the role of the environment and educational interventions in improving mental abilities

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4
Q

how to measure what you can’t see

A

indirectly assess these things otherwise we make claims that are not accurate which can have detrimental effects on people

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5
Q

Construct

A

Theoretical (hypothetical) entity built by researchers
In cannot be directly observed
Tool to help up make sense of observable behaviour

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6
Q

Observable behaviour (manifest variables)

A

The thing that you can quantify, see and directly measure (e.g. how quickly you solve a task, how many times you smile per day, how many solutions you come up with etc.)
Represent some underlying disposition

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7
Q

Latent variables

A

You can’t see, interpreted through behaviours.
The number of times you smile (behaviour) may infer a certain level of happiness (latent)

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8
Q

Test

A

A way of operationalising this construct, turning it into something concrete

Reaction time reflects “processing speed” or gives an indication.
Number of items remembered reflects “working memory capacity”

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9
Q

Entity theorist

A

Believe mental abilities are fixed

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10
Q

Incremental theorist

A

Believe abilities are changeable - led to more effort and a more positive response to failure.

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11
Q

The Importance of Implicit beliefs

A

(incremental theory) predicted an upwards trajectory in grades over the two years of high school, while (entity theory) predicted a flat trajectory.

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12
Q

verbal intelligence

A

good vocabulary, converses easily on lots of subjects

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13
Q

Problem solving

A

makes good decisions, poses problem in a optimal way, plans ahead

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14
Q

Practical intelligence

A

sizes up situation well, determines how to achieve goals, displays an interest in the world at large

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15
Q

Explicit Theories of Intelligence

A

use data collected from people performing tasks that require intelligent cognition. To test whether or not the hypotheses (implicit) are correct.

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16
Q

Binet’s scale

A

Age level assigned to each reasoning tasked
The youngest age at which a child of normal intelligence should be able to complete the task. determined by the age at which a majority of normal children in the standardisation sample passed the task

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17
Q

Mental age

A

age assigned to the most difficult task that you could complete (E.g. if you were 5 years old and you were able to solve tasks appropriate for 7 but not above you had a mental age of 7)

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18
Q

Alfred Binet

A

commissioned to develop techniques for identifying children whose lack of success in normal classrooms suggested the need for some form of special education

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19
Q

Binet’s goal

A

devised only to identify students in need of remedial education (i.e., to help and improve)
He believe that intelligence can be augmented by good education; it is not a fixed and inborn quantity

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20
Q

Binet’s stipulations

A
  1. The scored are a practical device
  2. The scale is rough - not used for ranking “normal” kids
  3. Low scores shall not be used to mark children as innately incapable
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21
Q

H.H Goddard

A

Goddard used Binet’s test to prevent immigration and propagation of “morons”

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22
Q

Scores for Goddards test

A

Idiot: mental age <2
Imbecile: mental age 3-7
Feeble Minded: mental age 8-12
Moron: highest functioning mentally retarded

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23
Q

Goddard’s reasoning

A

His reason for this was to avoid the dilution of the American stock?
Part of eugenics

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24
Q

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A

Introduced in the Stanford-Binet test
Problematic

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25
Q

Ratio IQ

A

mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100
Allows comparison of intellectual performance across age levels
difficult to apply to adults - assumes linear increase

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26
Q

Z score

A

Standard Deviation of 1, mean of 0

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27
Q

standardising (norming) a test

A

Raw scores > Z-scores > Deviation IQ scores

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28
Q

Deviation IQ

A

scores means the same thing regardless of the comparison group
scores <100 and >100, reflect how far your score deviates from the average

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29
Q

Stanford-Binet (IV edition)

A

15 subtests in four areas of cognitive ability
Give standard age scores (SAS), mean = 100, SD = 16
verbal, quantitative, abstract/visual reasoning and short-term memory

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30
Q

Raw score

A

Number of correctly answered items: say there were 20 items and you failed 5 you would then have a score of 15.
This score is later converted to a scaled score

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31
Q

Establish a basal and ceiling level for each task

A

Usually start at a point suggested by examinee’s age
Basal level = four items passed in a row
Ceiling level = three or more out of four consecutive items failed (discontinue)

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32
Q

Raven’s Progressive Matrices

A

Prototypical test of fluid intelligence (non-verbal) (Gf)
Deduce the “rule” and fill in the missing blank (pattern)

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33
Q

correlation

A

linear relationship between two variables
-1<x<1.
does not equal causation

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34
Q

+ correlation

A

as scores one one variable increase, scores on the other variable also tend to increase

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35
Q
  • correlation
A

Negative: as scores on one variable increase, scores on the other variable tend to decrease

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36
Q

Factor analysis of intelligence

A

find underlying factors that explain the pattern of correlations within scores
all mental abilities correlate with each other to some extent - multiple clusters of stronger correlations
Organises Primary Mental Abilities (PMAs) into more general cognitive abilities

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37
Q

Spearman’s g

A

general intelligence factors - good predictor of performance in real life

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38
Q

Positive manifold

A

they all correlate (positive) with each other to some extent

39
Q

primary mental abilities

A

Verbal comprehension
Inductive reasoning
Numerical fluency
Word fluency
Spatial ability
Memory
Perceptual speed

40
Q

General fluid intelligence (Gf)

A

The ability to grasp relations between things; deal with novelty
Non-verbal abilities, inductive and deductive reasoning
Culture free (in theory, but not in practice - assessment?)

41
Q

General crystallised intelligence (Gc)

A

Acquired knowledge and skills
Requires exposure to culture, formal/informal education
May require some investment in fluid intelligence

42
Q

Gf first order abilities

A

Induction
sequential reasoning
quantitative reasoning
temporal tracking
figural reasoning

43
Q

Gc first order abilities

A

verbal comprehension
cognition of semantic relations
general information
reading comprehension
spelling ability
verbal closure
phonetic coding
foreign language aptitude

44
Q

Evidence that Gf and Gc are different constructs

A

Fluid rises to young adulthood, then falls off in old age
Crystallised rises and plateaus, roughly speaking

45
Q

Good psychological assessment depends on…

A

How well we can measure the ability or trait of interest
Is our test accurate? - reliability
Is our test measuring what we think it’s measuring? -validity
Whether the answer is used in an appropriate way (is our use of the test valid?) - Validity

46
Q

reliability

A

If a test is reliable it should be able to distinguish between people who differ on the construct - not influence by random fluctuations

47
Q

Classical test theory

A

Any observed score has two components:
The true score (the real level of ability)
And some error component (random variance)
X = T + E

48
Q

sources of error

A

Test Construction (e.g., choice of items/stimuli; content of the test)
Test Administration (e.g., variability in examiner; variability in examinee, examiner mood)
Errors in Scoring (e.g., failure to use ‘rubric’ consistently)
Interpretation Subjectivity (e.g., evaluation of response)

49
Q

observed score

A

The actual “measuremnt”
Consists of True score and Error

50
Q

True score

A

the ideal measurement
What we strive for
Is constant for an individual

51
Q

Error

A

Errors in measurement
Is random
Noise
Unrelated to the true score (i.e., the “real” score)
Cannot be eliminated completely

52
Q

Estimating the True Score

A

estimate it from taking multiple measurements
If we could repeat the measure my indefinitely the long term mean = the true score (doesn’t actually work because individuals would get better at the test and obscure the result)

53
Q

How do we estimate reliability?

A

Test-retest reliability
Equivalent forms of reliability
Cronbach’s Alpha

54
Q

Cronbach’s Alpha (𝜶)

A

reflects the extent to which all items measure the same thing.
If 𝜶 is high (close to 1) there is a strong positive correlation which means you are measuring the same things in both sections of the test.

55
Q

Content validity

A

Coverage of the “Domain” of behaviour
Define the boundaries and structure of Domain

56
Q

boundary and structure

A

Boundary: what is considered part of the domain and what’s not
Structure : test contents reflect the structure of the domain.

57
Q

construct validity

A

How well defined is the construct measured by this test?
convergent: Is the construct related to other theoretically similar constructs/tests
discriminant: Is the construct independent of other, unrelated, psychological constructs?

58
Q

How do we measure intelligence?

A

Step 1: Work out what it is we want to measure
Step 2: Work out what it looks like
Step 3: Devise tests and scores
Step 4: Work out how it is structured
Step 5: Assess whether our test is valid and reliable

59
Q

Sir Francis Galton

A

Prominent people have prominent relatives
The offspring of these families have better access to jobs and education
(nepotism)
Opposed to them being actually gifted.
Eugenics

60
Q

Family Resemblance Studies

A

if a trait is affected by genetic factors, individuals that are more similar genetically
should be more similar with respect to that trait

61
Q

problems with family resemblance studies

A

Genetic relatedness is usually closely linked to environmental similarity
doesn’t seperate hereditary from environment

62
Q

Adoption and Twin Studies

A

Genetically similar people raised in different environments - Similarity can be (more likely) attributed to genetic factors
Genetically unrelated people raised in the same environment - Similarity can be attributed to shared environment

63
Q

shared environment

A

socio-economic status
family climate
Geography
Nutrition

64
Q

non-shared environment

A

Pregnancy
siblings order
parental preference
peers, school
Illnesses

65
Q

Sources of Variability in Twin Studies

A

if correlation is lower than for MZ, can attribute that to genetic influence
If correlation is lower than MZ reared together, can attribute that to environment

66
Q

Heritability (H)

A

proportion of the total variation in a given characteristic in a given population
that can be attributed to genetic differences between members of that
population

67
Q

Genotype

A

Underlying Genetic factors (Gv)

68
Q

Phenotype

A

Expression of underlying Genetic factors (Gv)
Can be influenced by Environment (Ev)
also interaction between G and E + residual variation

69
Q

Phenotype

A

Expression of underlying Genetic factors (Gv)
Can be influenced by Environment (Ev)
also interaction between G and E + residual variation

70
Q

Heritability (H) is simply …

A

the proportion of phenotypic variance (Pv) that is due to
genetic influences (Gv):
H ≈ Gv/Pv (Gv divided by Pv)

71
Q

Heritability Ratio

A

The heritability of a particular trait is not absolute - it is statistic for a given population
at a given time
‘H’ depends on:
the genetic variability of that population
the degree of variation in its environment

72
Q

Problems with heritability estimates

A

assumes that genetic and environmental contribution are independent
Heritability seems to vary with SES
could change depending on the age at which it is estimated

73
Q

Gender differences in IQ

A

The general trend is a decline in gender differences over the past fifty years
Evidence for environmental explanations of these differences

74
Q

Racial differences in IQ

A

Difference in SES, environment, culture?

75
Q

“The Bell Curve”

A

Herrnstein & Murray (1994) - heritability of intelligence, waste of money to help underprivileged groups that are “genetically dumber”

76
Q

Jensen (‘g’ theorist)

A

Argued that if environments were equalised, the 15-point IQ gap would only be
reduced by about 5 points, so it’s still a real difference

77
Q

The Bell Curve premises

A
  1. There has to be a meaningful single number that can be given to intelligence
  2. You have to be able to rank people in a single linear fashion and this rank needs to
    predict social outcomes
  3. IQ has to be highly heritable
  4. IQ has to be effectively unchangeable

these are all invalid premises

78
Q

Bias

A

statistical concept – ie. Do IQ tests systematically underestimate the
intelligence of certain groups

79
Q

fairness

A

social issue

80
Q

race stereotype threat

A

caused the black subjects to under perform

81
Q

The Flynn effect

A

Flynn (1987) showed increases of 5 to 25 points on IQ tests in a generation over 14 countries
Increases are in raw scores. May not be immediately obvious due to revised norms: mean is always recalibrated to 100

82
Q

why IQ is rising but people are getting worse on SATs

A

Flynn (2007) suggested that through “modernization”, a much larger proportion of people have become accustomed to dealing with abstract concepts - IQ tests measure abstract problem solving ability

83
Q

ethics

A

branch of philosophy that investigates good and bad right and wrong duty and obligation

84
Q

Morality

A

Deals with questions of duty obligation and conductor our actions right or wrong

85
Q

Problems with IQ tests

A

Biassed
Does not measure creativity or wisdom etc.
Indigenous cultures focus on environment and no IQ tests involve these questions
Variability is instantly introduced when IQ tests are translated into different languages
There is a difference in IQ amongst racial groups but this isn’t necessarily an indicator of absolute intelligence amongst them

86
Q

Ethical Absolutism

A

A belief that things are inherently right and inherently wrong, regardless of consequences and actions. Holding of absolute principles

87
Q

Problems with ethical absolutism

A

don’t provide enough info to deal with real-life dilemmas.
difficult to maintain this perspective when it comes to personal things - family in danger

88
Q

Ethical Relativism

A

There is no universally valid or correct standards of right or wrong, relies on its consequences and practicality

89
Q

problems with ethical relativism

A

requires us to do something bad in order to gain good consequences. But does ‘the end always justify the means’?
Extreme forms of relativism make it difficult for us to make moral judgements at all

90
Q

4 areas of ethical regulation in professional practice

A
  1. Consent
  2. Confidentiality - unless required by law
  3. Personal & Professional Welfare
  4. Professional Relationships - vulnerability/power imbalances
91
Q

ethical concerns in research

A
  1. Safety
  2. Stress
  3. Deception
  4. Informed consent
  5. Freedom to withdraw
  6. Confidentiality and anonymity
92
Q

Ethics in Animal Research

A

Animal suffering is minimised in experimental procedures and is outweighed by the likely benefit of the research

93
Q

Arguments FOR animal research

A

inexpensive
are like humans - study ourselves through them
not like humans - less complex, easier to study and manipulate

94
Q

Arguments AGAINST animal research

A

are like humans - suffer in similar ways
not like humans - If they are fundamentally different, can they really teach us anything about ourselves
sometimes done for trivial/exploitative reasons (cosmetics)

PSYC1002 (6 decks)

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