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Biology Year 2 > 6.2.1- Cloning and Biotechnology > Flashcards

6.2.1- Cloning and Biotechnology Flashcards

1
Q

what is cloning?

A

A method of producing genetically identical offspring by asexual reproduction.

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2
Q

what are clones?

A

genetically identical copies of genes, cells or organisms

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3
Q

what is reproductive cloning?

A

the production of genetically identical individuals

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4
Q

how do prokaryotes clone themselves naturally?

A

by binary fission (cells split in two)

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5
Q

how do eukaryotes clone themselves naturally?

A

by asexual reproduction (divide by mitosis)

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6
Q

what is asexual reproduction known as in plants?

A

vegetative propagation

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7
Q

how do plants clone themselves naturally?

A

by growing new plants from growing points (meristem), which contain undifferentiated stem cells that are capable of dividing and differentiating to produce new individual plants called cuttings

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8
Q

what are the three advantages of using asexual reproduction for natural cloning?

A

1- Rapid colonisation (saves time finding mate and producing gametes)
2- Allows reproduction in absence of mates
3-All offspring are well-adapted to current environment

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9
Q

what is the disadvantage of using asexual reproduction for natural cloning?

A

no genetic variation/diversity

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10
Q

what is vegetative propagation?

A

any form of asexual reproduction that occurs in plants, where a new plant grows from a fragment of the parent plant or specialised reproductive structure

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11
Q

what are four examples of vegetative propagation?

A

-bulbs, daffodil= the leaf bases swell with stored food for photosynthesis
-runners, strawberries= lateral stem grows from the parent plant, roots develop when it touches the ground
-rhizomes, marram grass=horizontal stem running underground, swollen with stored food
-stem tubers, potato= tip of underground stem becomes swollen into stored food and forms a tuber, the buds on the tuber develop to produce new shoots

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12
Q

what are the 3 techniques of horticulture and explain these?

A

1= cuttings, cut stem treated with plant hormones
2= grafting, cut stem inserted into groove on a different plant stem
3= splitting bulbs, splitting up bulbs or cutting up rhizomes.

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13
Q

what are some advantages of using cuttings to crop plants rather than using seeds?

A

-all plants will be the same (height, size, flowering, etc) to the stock plant
-guarantees quality
-much faster time from planting to cropping

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14
Q

what are some disadvantages of using cuttings to crop plants

A

-decreases genetic diversity
-if one plant is effected by disease, they all will be

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15
Q

why should cuttings be taken at an angle?

A

-greater surface area
-increased water uptake
-enhances survival

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16
Q

is horticulture natural or artificial cloning?

A

artificial

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17
Q

how does vegetative propagation occur in elm trees?

A

-elm tree roots contain meristem tissue which divides by mitosis to produce root suckers, which do not usually survive in crowded woodland due to competition for sunlight
-if the main trunk is destroyed during disease, burning or felling, a ring of root suckers starts to grow called a clonal patch

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18
Q

what is the disadvantage of vegetative propagation in elms?

A

suckers are just as susceptible to diseases as the original tree, as they are genetically identical

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19
Q

what is the main advantages of vegetative propagation in elms?

A

-survive burning and felling
-recolonise rapidly

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20
Q

what are the 6 steps to taking plant cuttings used in horticulture?

A

1-use a non-flowering stem
2-make an oblique cut with a sharp scalpel
3-use a hormone rooting powder
4-reduce leaves
5-keep cutting well watered
6- cover the cuttings with a plastic bag

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21
Q

explain the steps in taking plant cuttings used in horticulture?

A

1-so resources are used to grow the roots
2-large sa, sharp to prevent cell damage
3-synthetic auxins, to allow adventitious roots to grow
4- less stress on plant so increases survival
5- has no roots to absorb water, ensures survival
6-humidity, stops plant drying out and reduces water loss

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22
Q

what is another example of artificial cloning in plants?

A

micropropagation/tissue culture

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23
Q

what is micropropagation/tissue culture?

A

the process of making large numbers of genetically identical offspring from a single parent plant using tissue culture techniques.

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24
Q

when is tissue culture used?

A

-plants that do not readily produce seeds
-plants that do not respond well to natural cloning
-rare plants
-plants that have been genetically modified or selectively bred with difficulty
-plants required to be ‘pathogen free’

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25
Q

what are the 6 steps to micropropagation/tissue culture?

A

1- explant cells are removed from the meristem of the shoot tip of the plant to be cloned
2- explant cells are sterilised and placed on a sterile nutrient agar containing a balance of cytokinin and auxin to stimulate mitosis
3- they grow into a ball of undifferentiated cells called a callus
4- callus is subdivided and grown on sterile nutrient agar containing auxins
5- these hormones stimulate differentiation to produce thousands of miniature plants
6- miniature plants are called plantlets which are transferred to soil to grow bigger

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26
Q

what are some pros of using tissue culture?

A

-small amount of tissue used to mass produce
-independent of season growth
-disease-free crops
-uniform crops with desired characteristics
-it can be used for conservation of rare species

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27
Q

what are some cons of tissue culture?

A

-expensive
-sterile conditions needed
-explants and plantlets are vulnerable to moulds
-labour-intensive, trained staff

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28
Q

what are the two methods of producing genetically identical animal clones?

A

1= splitting embryos
2= somatic cell nuclear transfer

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29
Q

what occurs during artificial twinning /splitting embryos?

A

-animal embryos contain totipotent stem cells
-split embryos are implanted into surrogate mothers
-each one grows into a genetically identical animal, equivalent to identical twins

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30
Q

explain somatic cell nuclear transfer?

A

-nucleus removed from differentiated cell of donor adult
- nucleus is placed into an enucleated egg cell
-newly created cell is implanted into surrogate mother
-this develops into a new individual, which is genetically identical to the donor adult

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31
Q

what is an example of somatic cell nuclear transfer?

A

dolly the sheep

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32
Q

what are the positive of animal cloning?

A

-high production
-important for pharming
-replaces specific pets, clone top class racehorses
-preservation of rare/endangered species
-potential to reproduce extinct animals

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33
Q

what are the concerns of artificial cloning in animals?

A

-animal welfare
-reduced lifespan and unknown health risks
-many failed embryos
-genetic uniformity so entire herd could be wiped out by the same disease.

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34
Q

what is therapeutic cloning/non-reproductive cloning?

A

the production of genetically identical cells, tissues and organs to replace those damaged by accidents/disease.

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35
Q

what is the potential uses of therapeutic cloning?

A

-regeneration of heart muscle after a heart attack
-repair to nerve tissue damaged by multiple sclerosis

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36
Q

what is biotechnology?

A

the industrial use of living organisms or parts of living organisms, to produce food, drugs or other products.

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37
Q

why are microorganisms ideal for biotechnology?

A

-short life cycle so they grow rapidly
-produce proteins/chemicals, that can be easily harvested
-genetically engineered to produce specific products
-grow well at low temperatures, so economical to use
-grown anywhere
-more pure
-no welfare issues.

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38
Q

what foods/drinks are microorganism and biotechnology used to make?

A

-bread
-beer
-cheese
-yoghurt

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39
Q

what are the steps in making bread through biotechnology?

A

-active yeast mixture is added to flour/other ingredients, mixed and left to rise in a warm environment
-dough is knocked back (excess air is removed), kneaded and shaped
-it is then cooked in a hot oven, so the CO2 bubbles will expand, yeast cells are killed and bread will rise

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40
Q

what are the steps to brewing beer in biotechnology?

A

-

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41
Q

what are the steps to cheese-making in biotechnology?

A

-yeast cells are genetically modified to produce the enzyme chymosin, which clots the milk
-lactobacillus also converts the lactose in the milk into lactic acid, which make it turn into a solid curd and liquid whey
-fungi is added to give flavour and colour

42
Q

what are the steps to yoghurt production in biotechnology?

A

-lactobacillus clots the milk and causes it to thicken

43
Q

what is the production of bread, beer, cheese and yoghurt an example of in terms of food production?

A

indirect food production

44
Q

what is an example of direct food production?

A

single-cell protein, Quorn

45
Q

how is quorn made?

A

made from the fungus Fusarium venetatum that is grown in large fermenters using glucose syrup as a food source

46
Q

what are the 7 advantages of using microorganisms to produce human food?

A

-reproduce fast
-high protein content with little fat
-variety of waste materials used, reducing costs
-genetically modified to produce protein required
-not dependent on weather, breeding cycles
-no welfare issues when growing microorganisms
-can be made to taste like anything

47
Q

what are the 7 disadvantages of using microorganisms to produce human food?

A

-produces toxins if conditions are not maintained
-have to be separated from broth and processed to make food
-involve GM organisms, concerns
-protein has to be purified to ensure it contains no toxin/contaminants
-people dislike thought of eating microorganisms grown on waste
-has little natural flavour, needs additives

48
Q

what is penicillin?

A

the first commercial product of the antibiotic produced by mould

49
Q

what was the mould that produced penicillin called?

A

Peniciilium chrysogenum

50
Q

what does P.chrysogenum need to grow and what needs to be controlled?

A

-to grow= high oxygen levels, rich nutrient medium
-controlled= pH and tempterature

51
Q

what is bioremediation?

A

the use of organisms to remove toxic materials from the environment?

52
Q

what is bioremediation used for?

A

to remove pollutants like sewage and crude oil by breaking them down into less harmful products

53
Q

what is an example of where bioremediation was used?

A

during the Deepwater Horizon spill in 2010, which was disastrous for the environment?

54
Q

what is culturing microorganisms?

A

to investigate microorganisms for medical diagnosis or disease or for scientific experiments, you need to culture them, which involves growing large enough numbers so we can see them clearly

55
Q

what is essential during culturing microorganisms?

A

-right conditions of temperature, oxygen and pH
-need food provided for the nutrient medium, this can be either broth or agar

56
Q

what is asepsis in the absence of unwanted organisms?

A

techniques used to avoid contamination of cultures, and the precautions taken to ensure the unwanted microorganisms do not contaminate cultures of microorganisms or products.

57
Q

what 4 ways do contaminants reduce product yield?

A

-compete for nutrients and space
-may cause spoilage of product
-may produce toxic chemicals
-may destroy unwanted microorganisms

58
Q

what 3 things do aseptic techniques help to exclude contaminants from?

A

-nutrient media (nutrient sources that microorganisms are grown on)
-culture vessels (containers microorganisms are grown in)
-implements used to transfer microorganisms

59
Q

what should the medium during asepsis contain?

A

-energy source
-carbon source
-nitrogen source
-mineral salts
-growth factors
-water

60
Q

how do you inoculate broth?

A

-mix the suspension of bacteria to be grown with sterile nutrient broth in the flask.
-cotton wool is usually used as a stopper to prevent contamination
-incubated at a suitable temp, and shook regularly to provide oxygen

61
Q

what are 5 aseptic techniques?

A

-flaming
-irradiation
-autoclave
-laminar flow cabinet
-keep cultures closed

62
Q

explain the flaming technique?

A

use a bunsen burner to heat metal loops until glowing for transferring microorganisms

63
Q

explain the irradiation technique?

A

use UV and gamma rays to irradiate plastic containers used in culturing

64
Q

explain the autoclave technique?

A

use steam-sterilisation to prepare nutrient media and glass vessels

65
Q

explain the laminar flow cabinet technique?

A

-handle microorganisms in a laminar flow cabinet, where air circulation carries airborne contaminants away from the bench space
-alternatively swab with disinfectant before and after use, and work near a bunsen flame to create an updraft

66
Q

explain the keep cultures closed technique?

A

if opened, hold petri dish ajar, flame bottle becks and do not place lids on benches

67
Q

what does the growth curve show?

A

shows the population size over time for a closed culture

68
Q

what are the 4 distinct stages of the growth curve?

A

1- lag phase
2- exponential phase
3- stationary phase
4- death phase

69
Q

what happens in the lag phase of the growth curve?

A

-organisms adjust to surroundings
-cells active but not reproducing
-taking in water, cell expansion, activating genes, making enzymes

70
Q

what occurs in the exponential phase of the growth curve?

A

-population size doubles each generation as every individual has enough space and nutrients to reproduce
-cells reproducing exponentially

71
Q

what occurs in the stationary phase of the growth curve?

A

-waste products build up
-oxygen, nutrients and space run out
-rate of cell production = rate of cell death
-cells reproducing at same rate at which they are dying

72
Q

what occurs in the death phase of the growth curve?

A

-nutrient exhaustion
-increased levels of toxic waste products and metabolites lead to increased death rate
-death rate increases above reproductive rate

73
Q

what are the 3 techniques used to measure population growth?

A

1- direct counting
2- viable counting
3- turbidimetry using a colorimeter

74
Q

what is the equation used for viable counting?

A

number of bacteria/ml= number of colonies x dilution factor

75
Q

what microorganisms does direct counting give the total count for?

A

both dead and living

76
Q

what microorganisms/cells does viable counting count?

A

only live cells

77
Q

when is viable counting beneficial?

A

when an agar plate is inoculated a solid mass of microbial growth is present and you are unable to count the individual colonies

78
Q

what is involved in turbidimetry using a colorimeter?

A

samples are placed into a colorimeter, and a reading is taken
-must calibrate the turbidity readings by comparing them against the total counts/viable counts

79
Q

what does a colorimeter measure?

A

the absorbance of particular wavelengths of light by specific solution

80
Q

why is it important to calibrate the colorimeter?

A

to ensure that a constant reading is done that represent changes in experiment not instrument, container or buffer used

81
Q

what type of cells are used in turbidimetry?

A

dead and living cells

82
Q

what are primary metabolites?

A

substances produced by an organism as part of it’s normal growth

83
Q

what are secondary metabolites?

A

substances produced by an organism that are not part of it’s normal growth

84
Q

compare the concentration of primary metabolite and secondary metabolite to the growth curve?

A

primary= matches the growth curve
secondary= rises throughout stationary stage

85
Q

what happens to production in primary and secondary metabolites?

A

primary= production starts during lag phase (continues throughout), with rate of production being fastest in exponential phase
secondary= production starts at end of exponential, with rate being fastest during stationary phase

86
Q

how is insulin created using bioremediation?

A

genetic engineered bacteria has allowed for the production of human insulin to treat type 1 diabetes
= bacteria is grown in fermenters and downstream processing results in a constant supply

87
Q

what are industrial scale fermenters?

A

huge tanks that can hold up to 100,000 dm^3 of culture broth

88
Q

how are microorganisms transferred to the industrial scale fermenter?

A

using scale-up to inoculate
= moos are transferred from an agar plate to a small fermenter that are then transferred to a bigger fermenter, and so on so that te huge fermenter is inoculated with a large ‘starter’ population

89
Q

what are the 4 growing conditions that ensure a high product yield?

A

-temperature
-pH
-oxygen (needed for aerobic respiration)
-type and time of nutrient addition

90
Q

what are the two types of cultures produced through industrial scale fermentation?

A

1= batch culture
2= continuous

91
Q

explain batch culture?

A

-moos grown in a fixed volume of nutrient medium for a fixed period of time
-produce is removed at the end
-only oxygen added and only carbon dioxide removed
-go through lag, exponential and stationary
-grow until conditions become unfavourable
-used for obtaining secondary metabolites

92
Q

explain continuous culture?

A

-nutrients added to tank and products removed continuously
-fresh sterile medium added, cells/spent medium removed at same rate
-kept in exponential phase
-grow indefinitely
-used for obtaining metabolites

93
Q

what are the pros and cons to batch culture?

A

-growth rate is slower
-easy to set up and maintain
-only one batch is lost if contamination occurs
-less efficient, as fermentation tank is emptied
-very useful for processes involving production of secondary metabolites

94
Q

what are the pros and cons of continuous culture?

A

-growth rate is higher as nutrients constantly added
-more complicated to set up and maintain
-if contamination occurs huge volumes of product will be lost
-more efficient
-useful for processes involving production of primary metabolites

95
Q

what are immobilised enzymes?

A

enzymes that are attached to or trapped in a solid support so they can be used over and over again.

96
Q

what problem does using immobilised enzymes overcome?

A

gets over the problem that enzymes are expensive to produce and to separate them from a reaction mixture

97
Q

what are the 3 advantages of immobilised enzymes?

A

-they can be used over and over again because they remain attached in a solid support
-enzymes should not contaminate product, but they could leak
-enzymes are more stable

98
Q

what are the disadvantages to using immobilised enzymes?

A

-reduced activity
-expensive to set up initially
-contamination is costly to deal with

99
Q

what are the 4 different ways of immobilising enzymes?

A

1= absorption
2= covalent bonding
3= entrapment
4= membrane separation

100
Q

what are biosensors used for?

A

used to accurately monitor the blood and urine levels of substance, with the immobilised enzymes reacting with a specific substrate and the chemicals produced are detected by the sensors

Biology Year 2 (13 decks)

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