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Biological Anthropology > Chapter 4 > Flashcards

Chapter 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Origins of Life

A

How the first living organism came into being

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2
Q

Phylogenies

A

Genetic lineages (the evolution of genes in a species/group)

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3
Q

Phylogenetic tree

A

A family tree of all living organisms based on genetic relationships

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4
Q

How many years ago did the origin of life occur?

A

3.8 billion years ago

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5
Q

Universal ancestor

A

The first living organism where all living things are descended (where all organisms came from one single ancestor)

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6
Q

What do we know about the origins of life?

A

That a single-celled organism made copies of itself and led to the creation of many other species

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7
Q

Darwin

A

Founded natural selection

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8
Q

Gregor Mendel

A

Founded particulate inheritance (the idea that physical traits can be passed on to their offspring through genes)

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9
Q

Why did Medel’s and Darwin’s ideas fall out of favor?

A

Their ideas fell out of favor because both of their theories did not explain evolution entirely (both of their theories did not explain the entire picture)

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10
Q

Lamarckian inheritance

A

The idea that physical traits acquired over one’s lifetime can be passed on to their offspring (cutting hair or an injury)

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11
Q

What don’t we know about evolution?

A

We don’t know exactly how the first being came to be

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12
Q

Pangenesis

A

Darwin combined Lamarck’s theory and claimed that the physical traits acquired over one’s lifetime can be passed on through particles sent by all cells of the human body. These particles congregate in the reproductive system. (Incorrect theory)

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13
Q

How was Lamarck’s theory debunked?

A

It was debunked through an experiment. Weismann cut off mouse tails to see if the cut-off tails would be passed on. However, all of the baby mice were born with intact tails, so Lamarck’s theory was incorrect.

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14
Q

Hugo Marie de Wries

A

Dutch botanists who created the concept of genes and mutation

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15
Q

Carl Correns

A

German botanist who discovered the principles of heredity (this was achieved simultaneously but separately from Hugo de Vries)

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16
Q

Mutationists

A

Group of scientists who believed variation is caused by mutations in distinct inherited cells

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17
Q

Biometricians

A

A group of scientists believed that individual mutations could not account for a continuous spectrum of variation (the idea that mutations could cause a wide spectrum of variation like height or weight)

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18
Q

Does evolution take place in populations or individuals?

A

Populations

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19
Q

Population

A

Group of individuals who are of the same species who are geographically near each other which allows them to reproduce offspring

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20
Q

Species

A

Organisms of the same group can reproduce with each other because they are biologically and behaviorally compatible to produce with each other

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21
Q

Viable Offpsring

A

Offspring that are healthy enough to survive to adulthood

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22
Q

William Castle and John Phillips

A

They discovered that they could breed rats with a wide variety of colors

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23
Q

Thomas Hunt

A

Conducted studies on fruit flies where he discovered how chromosomes and genes play a role in heredity.

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24
Q

What did Thomas Hunt discover?

A

Most mutations increased variations within populations rather than creating new species

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25
Q

R.A. Fisher and John
Burdon

A

Developed and tested mathematical models for evolutionary change that created the basis for studying population genetics

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26
Q

Sewall Wright and Theodosius

A

Performed studies where they discovered that chromosomes are the carriers of genes

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27
Q

Edmund Brisco

A

conducted studies on wild butterflies that confirmed that there are multiple forms of a trait

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28
Q

Polymorphisms

A

Multiple forms of a trait

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29
Q

Julian Huxley

A

Published a book on the summary of evolution called the modern synthesis

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30
Q

Modern Synthesis

A

Unified theory of evolution

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31
Q

Fertile Offspring

A

Offspring who can have offspring of their own

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32
Q

Subspecies

A

Species that are physically different and geographically isolated from each other but can interbreed with other species if they choose to do so

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33
Q

Why can’t hybrids reproduce?

A

Because they have a mismatched set of chromosomes that doesn’t allow for the reproduction of offspring

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34
Q

Genes

A

The basic unit of information that encodes proteins needed to grow and function as a living organism

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35
Q

Alleles

A

Variant of a trait

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36
Q

Genotype

A

The genes that an individual inherits

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37
Q

Phenotype

A

Physical traits that can be observed that are influenced by one’s genes

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38
Q

Homozygous Genotype

A

Carrying two of the same alleles

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39
Q

Heterozygous Genotype

A

Carrying two different alleles of a trait

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40
Q

If a population has subspecies, what can you conclude about the history of that population?

A

That a species become geographically separated that they developed physical traits separate from each other but can still reproduce with each other

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41
Q

How is it possible for tigers and lions as well as horses and donkeys to mate successfully yet have offspring that are infertile?

A

Their hybrids have unequal chromosomes that don’t allow for reproduction

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42
Q

Evolution

A

Change in allele frequencies in a population over time

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43
Q

Allele Frequencies

A

The ratio or percentage of allele frequencies in comparison to other alleles in a population
How common an allele frequency is within a population
Dominant vs recessive alleles

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44
Q

Genotype Frequencies

A

The number of individuals who have a given genotype in a population
How frequently does that genotype show up in a population

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45
Q

What are the forces of evolution?

A

The mechanisms that account for genotype variation: mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection

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46
Q

How can we be fairly certain that these four processes of genotype variation give us an accurate sense of how evolution happens?

A

Because they have been retested over and over again in modern synthesis

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47
Q

Mutation

A

Copying error that leads to a change in genetic code that leads to gene variation

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48
Q

Deleterious mutations

A

Mutations that cause negative effects such as cancer or heritable diseases

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49
Q

Beneficial mutations

A

Changes in the DNA that provided some sort of advantage to a given population at a particular moment in time

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50
Q

UV cross-linking

A

Interaction with UV light
A type of mutation in which adjacent thymine bases bind to one another in the presence of UV light

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51
Q

DNA repair mechanisms

A

enzymes that patrol and repair DNA in living cells, while other mutations may cause a new freckle or mole or, perhaps, unusual hair
to grow

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52
Q

Autosomal recessive

A

The pattern of inheritance characteristic of genetic disorders

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53
Q

Xeroderma pigmentosum

A

A genetic disorder that decreases the ability to repair DNA damage caused by UV light (effects include sunburn, skin pigmentation, freckling etc)

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54
Q

Somatic

A

Cells of our organs and other body tissues

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55
Q

Which mutations in cells are passed on to offspring?

A

Only mutations in gametes are passed on

56
Q

Gametes

A

reproductive cells

57
Q

Spontaneous Mutation

A

A random mutation that occurs in a family lineage

58
Q

Inherited Mutation

A

A random mutation that occurred in a family lineage that has passed on its offspring

59
Q

Point mutation

A

A point mutation is a type of mutation in DNA or RNA, the cell’s genetic material, in which one single nucleotide base is added, deleted, or changed.
The DNA base is replaced with another such as replacing thymine with adenine. This leads to a change in RNA.

60
Q

Codons

A

Each gene is translated through three-letter words called codons

61
Q

Cystosine methylation

A

A very common reason as to why point mutation occurs (a change in the DNA’s nucleotide which leads to a different protein). A chemical change. where a cystosine nucleotide is changed to a thymine.

62
Q

What is the most common cause of autosomal dominant disorder?

A

During DNA coding, cystosine is accidentally replaced with thymine.

63
Q

Synonymous Mutations

A

A mutation that occurs but does not change the protein. Even though there is a letter chance, the DNA is still read the same which produces the same protein.

64
Q

Non-synonymous Mutation

A

Mutations that do cause a change in a protein

65
Q

How many types of non-synonymous mutations are there? What are they?

A

Three: missense, nonsense, and splice site mutations.

66
Q

Missense Mutation

A

One of the DNA pairs is changed for example A for C. As a result, the DNA now codes for a different amino acid. This change in the amino acid can be neutral, positive, or negative.

67
Q

Nonsense Mutations

A

Creates a single change to a DNA base pair. However, it encodes stop codons prematurely into the protein which will stop protein synthesis prematurely. This can have a much greater effect in comparison to missense mutations because it stops protein production prematurely. This can have a major or minor impact.

68
Q

Intron

A

DNA that makes up a gene (a single section of DNA). Used in pre-rna (not final rna). Sections of mRNA that do not code for a protein. Removed from the pre-RNA.

69
Q

Splice site mutation

A

A mutation where the genetic code is changed where the process of removing intron sequences from the mRNA is disrupted. The process is affected where an intron can still remain when it should be removed and an exon be removed when it should have remained in the mRNA.

70
Q

What other type of class of mutations exist?

A

Insertions and deletions (indels).

71
Q

What are insertions and deletions?

A

Insertion-adding one or more letters
Deletion-deleting one or more letters

72
Q

Frameshift Mutations

A

When a nucleotide has been added or deleted, this changes how RNA reads the DNA (which is read in groups of 3), which changes what protein is being produced

73
Q

Transposable elements

A

Jumping genes that move from one location on the genome to another. A section will be cut out of a sequence and reinserted elsewhere.
Class 2 transposons.

74
Q

Retrotransposons

A

DNA that is copied into the RNA and then that section that was copied into the RNA is recopied back into the DNA in another location
Class 1 transposons.

75
Q

Why is a frameshift mutation very serious for the organism?

A

They are very serious because they cause all the codons after the mutation to be misread. This can cause extensive changes to the protein which can cause loss of function and new interactions between the protein and other parts of the cell.

76
Q

How might transposons be responsible for genetic variation?

A

When transposons become very active, they accelerate the mutation rate, which increases genetic variation

77
Q

What are the three genetic mutations that occur on the chromosomal level?

A

Crossover events, nondisjunction events, and translocation

78
Q

Crossover Events

A

It’s when DNA is swapped and split into two cells during meiosis (these don’t create new alleles but create different combination of alleles) that can be passed down to future generations

79
Q

Nondisjuntion Events

A

This is when chromosomes fail to split during meiosis or mitosis which can lead to daugher cells having a larger number of chromosomes than necessary. Also, this leaves the other daughter cell with no chrosomosomes which is fatal to the embroyo.

80
Q

Trisomies

A

A genetic disorder where a person has three chromosomes instead of two

81
Q

Monosomies

A

Inheritance of X chromosome from one parent but no sex chromosome from the other.
Leaves one sterile.

82
Q

Chromosomal translocations

A

Transfers of DNA between non-honologous chromosomes (Chrosomes that aren’t the same). Exchanges of DNA can be balanced or unbalanced.

83
Q

Balanced translocations

A

Genes are swapped but no genetic information is lost

84
Q

Unbalanced translation

A

Unequal exchange of genetic material which leads to duplication or loss of genes

85
Q

Derivative chromosomes

A

Structurally rearragned chromosome featuring two or more chromosomes

86
Q

What is the problem with translocation?

A

It leads to cancer and infertility

87
Q

What happens to babies who only inherit a sex chromosome from one parent?

A

It will die off

88
Q

Neurofibromatosis Type 1

A

Common genetic disorder that causes skin growths

89
Q

Autosomal Dominant

A

Everyone that is born with a mutation in a gene (whether that’s inherited or spontaenous) has a 50:50 chance of passing it on to their offspring

90
Q

Exons

A

Parts of the gene that remain in the mature mRNA after RNA splicing

91
Q

Benign

A

non-cancerous tumor

92
Q

Cutaneous neurofibromas

A

Overgrowth of nerve tissue that look like bumps on the skin

93
Q

Plexiform neurofibromas

A

looks like the skin is melting

94
Q

café-au-lait spots

A

flat, brown birthmark-like spots on the skin

95
Q

Genetic Drift

A

random changes in allele frequences from one generation to the next

96
Q

Why is “genetic drift” not a good name for this process?

A

Refers to genes drifting rather than alleles which is what is actually happening

97
Q

When does genetic drift occur?

A

It occurs based on generation (it differs generation to generation)

98
Q

What makes some alleles more common than others?

A

It’s a completely random process

99
Q

asexual reproduction

A

Single parent produces offspring (offspring has same inhertied genes and traits as parent)

100
Q

sexual reproduction

A

Two parents produce offspring (offspring is a mixture of genes from both parents)

101
Q

Population Bottleneck

A

A random event like a natural disasater kills of many individuals in a population. This decreases the amount of alleles in a population

102
Q

Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction

A

A prehistoric disaster that led tp the extinction of dinosaurs. Occured 66 million years ago, an asteriod hit the Gulf of Mexico and wiped out many dinosaurs

103
Q

Antibiotics

A

Medicines used to treat antibacterial infections

104
Q

Founder effects

A

members of a population leave the original group (they don’t interbreed with the original group). Can cause rare alleles to become very common

105
Q

guevedoces

A

Created through the founder effect. Male organs in females at age 12

106
Q

5-alpha reductase deficiency

A

Doesn’t allow male organs to form properly

107
Q

Ellis-van Creveld syndrome

A

an autosomal recessive disorder is characterized by short stature dwarfism), polydactyly [the development of more than five digits fingers or toes) on the hands or feet], abnormal tooth development, and heart defects

108
Q

Gene flow

A

the movement of alleles from one population to another

109
Q

admixture

A

Among humans, gene flow is often described as admixture

110
Q

Why is it true that there are no distinct human genetic populations?

A

All modern humans are members of the same fully breeding-compatible species

111
Q

Hybridization

A

Gene flow between otherwise isolated non-human populations

112
Q

Africanized Honey Bees

A

A genetically modified version of honey bees that are extremely aggressive

113
Q

Harlequin ladybeetle

A

“natural” form of pest control that were introduced to north america from east asia as pest control

114
Q

Natural selection

A

when certain phenotypes are considered an advantage or disadvantage in survival and/or reproductive success

115
Q

peppered moth

A

A moth that became darker over time to compensate for the soot-covered trees but later became a problem because the moths would stand out when the trees became white again after the industrial revolution

116
Q

How many types of natural selection are there?

A

directional, balancing/stabilizing, or disruptive/diversifying

117
Q

Balancing selection

A

a balance of two extremes of an allele. A medium size baby

118
Q

Disruptive selection

A

When extremes of a trait are an advantage. The two extremes of a trait can become two separate populations.

119
Q

Directional selection

A

The environment preferring one allele over another

120
Q

Sickle cell anemia

A

autosomal recessive genetic disorder that affects millions of people worldwide. Inhibits blood flow in the body. Creates physical pain.

121
Q

malaria

A

an infection of the blood by a Plasmodium parasite

122
Q

Sexual selection

A

natural selection in which the selective pressure specifically affects reproductive success. Can make it hard to survive as a sexual trait may not be conducive to the environment. Peacock feathers make peacocks more susceptible to prey.

123
Q

Dictyostelium discoideum

A

species of slime mold

124
Q

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

A

a mathematical formula that allows the estimation of the number and distribution of dominant and recessive alleles in a
population. Calculates the estimation of allele frequencies that are changing and, if so, how quickly over time, and in favor of which allele?

125
Q

Once change has been noted in a population, what is the next step?

A

we need to consider which evolutionary processes might be
the cause of the change.

126
Q

Non-Random Mating

A

mate choice within a population follows a nonrandom pattern.

127
Q

Positive assortative mating

A

tendency for individuals to mate with others who
share similar phenotypes

128
Q

Negative assortative mating

A

individuals tend to select mates with qualities different from their
own

129
Q

artificial selection

A

humans who decide which
pairs will mate to increase the chances of offspring having certain desirable traits

130
Q

Microevolution

A

changes in allele frequencies within breeding populations, that is, within single species

131
Q

Macroevolution

A

involves changes that result in the emergence of new species

132
Q

speciation

A

When a single population divides into two or more separate species

133
Q

Allopatric speciation

A

long-term isolation
physical separation) of subgroups of the population. Something occurs in a population that stops individuals from mating. The environments that are created affect the two separated species that they become biologically different and can’t procreate even if that barrier is removed.

134
Q

Sympatric speciation

A

population splits into two or more separate species while remaining located
together without a physical barrier. Mutation stops individuals from reproducing

135
Q

Adaptive radiation

A

subgroups of a single species rapidly diversify and adapt to fill a variety of ecological niches

136
Q

ecological niche

A

constraints and resources that is available in an environmental setting

Biological Anthropology (15 decks)

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