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Mac- Freshman Year- Spring Semester > Brain, Mind, Behavior Test 2 > Flashcards

Brain, Mind, Behavior Test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What do psychoactive drugs do? (and what are two types)

A

relieve severe symptoms (antipsychotics and atypical antipsychotics)

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2
Q

Antipsychotics (neuroleptics)

A

a class of drugs that relieve or alleviate symptoms of schizophernia. This is typically done by blocking dopamine D2 receptors

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3
Q

Atypical antipsychotics

A

act on D2 receptors and/or other receptors. they help relieve symptoms that are resistant to typical antipsychotics.

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4
Q

exogenous substance

A

from outside the body- have been used for ages to change the functioning of the brain and body

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5
Q

How do neurons process and transmit info?

A

through electrical and chemical signals

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6
Q

what is a neurotransmitter

A

an endogeneous (internal) substance that has been released by the presynaptic neuron

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7
Q

action potentials reach the axon terminal- what is this?

A

this is the presynaptic side of a synapse

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8
Q

action potentials cause the vesicals to release what

A

releases neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft

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9
Q

where do molecules bind to neurotransmitter receptors

A

in the membrane of the postsynaptic cell

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10
Q

what are the 2 possible things that happen to neurotransmitters

A

they are either broken down by enzymes or brought back into the presynaptic terminal via reuptake (this relies of special transporters)

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11
Q

what is monoamine oxidoase (MAO)

A

an antidepressent

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12
Q

how does monoamine oxidase (MAO) work?

A

inhibitors of it prevent the breakdown of monoamines at the sunapses. The accumulation of these transmitters prolongs their activity. This is the huge imporant function of antidepressents (fun fact, you have to follow a specific diet on this stuff tho so like not slay)

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13
Q

how do tricyclic antidepressants work

A

they block reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine

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14
Q

how do selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) work

A

act specifically at serotonergic synapses.

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15
Q

what do receptor proteins do?

A

recognize transmitters and their mimics

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16
Q

what are the two basic kinds of neurotransmitter receptors

A

iontropic receptors and metabotropic receptors

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17
Q

ionotropic receptors

A

quickly change shape and open or close an ion channel when the transmitter molecule binds

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18
Q

metabotropic receptors

A

alter chemical reactions in the cell. they use a system of second messengers to open an ion channel. may start chemical reactions to alter gene expression

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19
Q

criteria for neurotranmitter classification (5)

A
  1. it is synthesized in presynaptic neurons and stored in axon terminals
  2. it is released when action potentials reach axon terminals
    3.it is recognized by receptors on postsynaptic membrane (it is a ligand)
  3. causes changes in a postsynaptic cell
  4. blocking its releease intereres with a cells ability to affect a postsynaptic cell
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20
Q

anxiolytics (what are 3)?

A

depressants, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines

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21
Q

depressants

A

drugs that reduce nervous system activity

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22
Q

barbiturates

A

early anxiolytics and sleep aids. they depress nervous activity. they are addictive and easy to overdose on (they can literally put you to sleep enough for someone to do surgery)

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23
Q

benzodiazepines

A

a specific anxiolytic that acts as agonist on GABA (A) receptors and enhances the inhibitory effects of GABA

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24
Q

opium

A

contains morphine, which is an effective analgesic

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25
Q

what are related to opium

A

morphine and heroin. they are related and highly addictive

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26
Q

how do opiates work

A

they bind to opioid receptors in the brain, especially the periaqueductal gray

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27
Q

endogenous opiods

A

they are enkephalins, endorphins, and dynorphins (which are peptides produced in the brain)

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28
Q

the 3 kinds of opioid receptors

A

delta, kappa, and mu. They are all metabotropic receptors

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29
Q

how to reverse effects of opiates

A

drugs that block opioid receptors can reverse the effects of opiates

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30
Q

active ingredient of in cannabis

A

delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

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31
Q

effects of marijuana

A

they can vary. relaxation, mood alteration, stimulation, and paranoia

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32
Q

heavy use of marijuana can cause what

A

respirator problems, addiction, and cognitive decline

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33
Q

what can adolescent use of marijuana can increase what?

A

schizophrenia

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34
Q

cannabinoid receptors

A

the brain contains cannabinoid receptors that mediate the effects of compounds like THC

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35
Q

endocannabinoids

A

analogs of marijuana produced in the brain, such as anandamide

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36
Q

stimulants do what

A

increase nervous system activity by increasing excitatory input or decreasing inhibitory activity

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37
Q

what do presynaptic adenosine receptors do

A

normally reduce transmitter release but are blocked by stimulants (such as caffeine), resulting in increased transmitter release.

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38
Q

nicotine is a _________

A

stimulant

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39
Q

short term affects of nicotine

A

increases heart rate, blood pressure, digestive action, and alertness

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40
Q

what does nicotine do

A

it acts as an agonist on nicotinic ACh receptors in the cortex. It enhances some cognitive functions, the ventral tegmental area, and activates reward/addiction pathways

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40
Q

cocaine- what has it been used for

A

was used in foods as an anesthetic but it is highly addictive and has serious side effects

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40
Q

cocaine- how does it work

A

blocks reuptake of monoamine transmitters so that they accumulate in synapses throughout the brain, boosting their effects.

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40
Q

synthetic stimulants

A

have a two step mode of action on monoamines

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41
Q

amphetamine

A

a synthetic stimulant. It causes a larger-than-normal release of the transmitter at axon terminals. It also interferes with the breakdown of the transmitter. Prolonged use leads to symptoms that resemble those of schizophrenia or brain damage

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42
Q

2 amino acid trasmitters

A

glutamate and GABA

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43
Q

alcohol stages and how it works

A

alcohol effects are biphasic- an initial stimulant phase, followed by a depressant. It acts on GABA receptors and dopamine-mediated reward systems.

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44
Q

glutamate

A

most widespread excitatory transmitter (AMPA and NMDA receptors)

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45
Q

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

A

most widespread inhibitory transmitter. GABAa receptors- ionotropic; inhibitory;allow Cl- ions into the cell

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46
Q

fetal alcohol syndrome

A

results when pregnant women abuse alcohol with permanent damage to the fetus.

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47
Q

how does alcohol abuse affect adults

A

alcohol abuse affects the frontal lobes, though the effects are reversible with abstinence

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48
Q

what does binge drinking do

A

it might cause brain damage and reduce the rate of neurogenesis

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49
Q

hallucinogens

A

alter sensory perception and produce unusual experiences through diverse neural actions

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50
Q

LSD (acid) how does it work

A

strongly activates serotonin 5-HT2A receptors in the visual cortex.

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51
Q

effects of LSD (acid)

A

produces mood changes and feelings of creativity, and thus may help treat some psychiatric disorders

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52
Q

how are mescaline and psilocybin similar

A

produce strong visual effects

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53
Q

types of peptide neurotransmitters (neuropeptides)

A

oxytocin, vasopressin

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54
Q

types of amine neurotransmitters

A

acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin

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55
Q

types of gas neurotransmitters

A

nitric oxide, carbon monoxide

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56
Q

Labeled lines

A

The brain recognizes the senses as distinct because their action potentials travel along separate nerve tracts.

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57
Q

what energy type do all sensory organs (though diverse) use?

A

action potentials

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58
Q

generator potential

A

local change in membrane potential which might activate an action potential

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59
Q

sensory transduction

A

the converion of electrical energy from a stimulus into a change in membrane potential in a receptor cell

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60
Q

all animals have sensory organs containing _______ that sense some stimuli but not others

A

receptor cells. all animals have sensory organs containing receptor cells that have some stimuli but not others.

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61
Q

pancinian corpuscle

A

a skin receptor that responds to vibrations and pressure. They are what senses textures

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62
Q

How does the Pacinian corpuscle

A

stimuli stretch its membrane and cause sodium channels to open. It creates a graded generator potential; if this potential exceeds the firing threshold, an action potential is generated

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63
Q

Von Frey

A

He helped research the sense of touch. Most of it was wrong but people still talk about it that way. For example, in the next few flashcards, we will talk about how things respond to senses. It is not actually that thing that responds to it, but it is attached to a neuron that responds to it instead. he also found that some areas respond to pressure, some respond to cold, some respond to heat, etc. Buuuut all respond to pain.

64
Q

Meissner’s corpuscles

A

respond to changes in stimuli. detect light touch

65
Q

merkel’s discs

A

respond to edges and isolated points

66
Q

ruffini corpuscles

A

detects stretching of the skin when we move fingers or limbs

67
Q

free nerve endings

A

they are in the skin and respond to pain, heat, and cold

68
Q

sensory events are encoded as what

A

streams of action potentials

69
Q

how can you measure the intensity of a stimulus

A

the number and thresholds of activated cells

70
Q

somatosensory system

A

it can determine if body sensations come from inside or outside of the body.

71
Q

how is stiumulus location determined

A

its based on a maplike representation of the posisiton of activated recepotrs

72
Q

receptive field

A

the area within which the presence of a stimulus will alter a sensory neurons firing rate

73
Q

sensory adaptation

A

progressive decrease in the response of a receptor to a sustained stimulation (think sitting in a hot tub of water. its hot at first and then it gets easier)

74
Q

phasic receptors

A

display adaptation

75
Q

tonic receptors

A

show little or no adaptation

76
Q

how can sensory information be suppressed

A

removing the stiumulus and central modulation of sensory modulation

77
Q

central modulation of sensory modulation

A

brain actively suppresses some sensory inputs and amplifies others

78
Q

dorsal column system purpose

A

delivers touch information

79
Q

how does the dorsal column system work

A

receptors send axons through the dorsal spinal cord so that they synapse on neurons in the brainstem. Axons from those neurons cross the midline and they go to the thalamus. Information about each sense is sent to a different region of the thalamus. In the thalamus, this sense is either emphasized or suppressed.

80
Q

Sensory cortex is organized into what 2 things

A

Primary sensory cortex and nonprimary sensory cortex

81
Q

Primary sensory cortex

A

one of these exists for each modality

82
Q

nonprimary sensory cortex (or sencondary sensory cortex)

A

receives direct projections from the primary sensory cortex area for that modality

83
Q

primary somatosensory cortex (s1)

A

located in the postcentral gyrus. it receives touch info from the opposite side of the body (cause it crosses over when it comes to the brain) (s1 cells are arraanged in a map of the body- a sensory homunculus)

84
Q

association areas

A

areas in the brain that process inputs from different modalities

85
Q

polymodal

A

neurons process input from different sensory systems

86
Q

synesthesia

A

a condition in which a stimulus in one modality also creates a sensation on another (think thursday and 7 and red and stuff- when you associate something with a color)

87
Q

pain steps

A

discomfort associated with tissue damage. pain causes us to withdraw from its source, to recuperate, and to warn others

88
Q

McGill Pain Questionaire 3 aspects of pain

A

sensory-discriminative dimension, motivational-affective (emotional) dimension, and overall cognitive-evaluative dimension

89
Q

nociceptors

A

peripheral receptors on free nerve endings that respond to painful stimuli

90
Q

transient receptor potential type M3 (TRPM3)

A

detects higher temperatives. does NOT respond to capsaicin

91
Q

TRPV1

A

responds to pain and does respond to capsaicin

92
Q

where is TRPM3 found

A

on A delta fibers

93
Q

A delta fibers

A

large myelinated axons that register pain quickly

94
Q

TRPV1 receptors are on what

A

thin, unmyelinated C fibers that conduct more slowly, producing lasting pain

95
Q

anterolatera system (aka spinothalamic)

A

transmits the sensations of pain and temperature to the brain

96
Q

how does the anterolateral system work

A

nerve fibers send axons into the dorsal horns of the spinal cord. they synapse on spinal neurons that project across the midline before ascending to the thalamus. then substaance p (glutamate and a peptide) are relseased within the spinal corse to boost pain signals.

97
Q

what are the 4 important amine transmitters

A

acetycholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, and seratonin

98
Q

acetycholine

A

plays a major role on transmission in the forebrain. many cholinergic neruons are found in the basal forebrain. disruption of cholinergic pathways interferes with learning and memory

99
Q

cholinergic

A

cells that use ACh as their synpatic transmitter

100
Q

dopamine

A

important for many aspects of behavior.

101
Q

mesotraital pathway

A

important for motor control. orgininates in substantia nigra

102
Q

norepinephrine

A

important in control of many behaviors ranging from alertness to mood to sexual behavior.

103
Q

where are noradrenergic neurons found

A

in the locus coeruleus and the lateral tegmental area

104
Q

seratonin

A

controls many aspects of behaviors including mood and stuff

105
Q

serotonergetic neruons originate where

A

along midline of the midbrain and brainstem

106
Q

many peptides do what

A

they act as neurotransmitters

107
Q

opioid peptids

A

mimic opiate drugs such as morphine and reduce the perception of pain

108
Q

peptide hormones contribute to what

A

peptide hormones such as oxytocin and vasopressin contribute to memory and pair bonding

109
Q

peptide hormones contribute to what

A

peptide hormones such as oxytocin and vasopressin contribute to memory and pair bonding

110
Q

how do gas neurotransmitters differ from other neurotransmitters (3 ways)

A

1) they are produced outside axon terminals (mainly dendrites) and diffuse out of the neuron as soon as they are produced
2) there are no receptors involved; they diffuse into the target cell and activate second messengers
3) it can function as a retrograde transmitter by diffusing from the post synaptic neuron back to the presynaptic neuron.

111
Q

Ligand

A

a substance that binds to a receptor

112
Q

endogeneous ligands

A

bind to a receptor and activate a change (eg. opens an ion channel)

113
Q

when a drug binds to the receptor, it is acting as ____. (and vice versa what is it)

A

an agonist. if it binds without activating and it also blocks it, then it is an antagonist

114
Q

each transmitter interacts with a variety of different receptor subtypes. How do scientists use this?

A

Transmitters differ in distribution within the brain and their types. This allows us to design drugs that work on just one or a few receptor subtypes

115
Q

binding affinity

A

the degree of a chemical attraction between a ligand and a receptor

116
Q

efficacy (intrinsic activity)

A

the ability of a ligand that has binded to activate the receptor

117
Q

efficacy (intrinsic activity)

A

the ability of a ligand that has binded to activate the receptor

118
Q

dose response curve (drc)

A

a graph of the relationship between drug doses and the effects

119
Q

bioavailable meaning

A

free to act on the target

120
Q

what does the amount of a drug that is bioavailable depend on?

A

the route of administration

120
Q

what does the amount of a drug that is bioavailable depend on?

A

the route of administration

121
Q

what is the duration of a drugs effect determined by

A

how it is metabolized

122
Q

what is the duration of a drugs effect determined by

A

how it is metabolized

123
Q

biotransformation

A

produces active metabolites that may produce side effects

124
Q

blood brain barrier

A

tight junctions between the cells of blood vessels in the CNS prevent the movement of large molecules. This can limit drug availability

125
Q

metabolic tolerance

A

organ systems become more effective at eliminating the drug (this can happen over time after repeated drug treatments)

126
Q

functional tolerance

A

target tissue may alter its sensitivity to the drug by changing the number of receptors. Do this in multiple ways (down or up regulation)

127
Q

down regulation

A

in response to an agonist, a fewer number of receptors will respond to drug

128
Q

up regulation

A

in response to an antagonist, more receptors will respond to a drug

129
Q

cross tolerance

A

tolerance to one drug is generalized to other drugs in its class

130
Q

how do drugs block transmitter production

A

(at presynaptic neuron) drugs may block synthesis enzymes, axon transport of raw materials, or the ability to store transmitter

131
Q

how can drugs block transmitter release

A

(at presynaptic neuron) drugs can block action potentials from occurring by blocking ion channels- thus blocking transmitter release

132
Q

autoreceptors can be affected by ___

A

they can be affected by drugs

133
Q

drugs and transmitter clearance

A

(in presynaptic neuron) a drug may block reuptake of a transmitter or block enzymes

134
Q

drugs may alter postsynaptic systems . They can alter __- and ____

A

transmitter receptors and intracellular postynaptic processes

135
Q

how can drugs affect transmitter receptors

A
  • receptor antagonists block postynaptic receptors from being activated.
  • receptor agonists bind to receptors and activate them.
136
Q

how can drugs alter intracellular postynaptic processes

A
  • receptor up and down regulation
  • activation of second messenger systems
  • activation of genes
137
Q

look at spinal column systems in the book

A

do this

138
Q

transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)

A

relieves pain by stimulating the nerves around the source of the pain

139
Q

Naloxone

A

an opioid antagonist that can block the analgesic effect of TENS. given to ppl who drug overdose

140
Q

autoreceptor

A

tells how much transmitter has been released

141
Q

placebo effect

A

relief of a symptom even though the treatment is an inert substance

142
Q

acupuncture

A

releives pain by inducing endorphin release . stress can activate analgesia systems

143
Q

reflex

A

simple, steotyped, and unlearned response to a particular stimulus

144
Q

acts

A

complex, sequential behaviors

145
Q

acts

A

complex, sequential behaviors

146
Q

motor plan (motor program)

A

set of muscles commands that is established before the action occurs

147
Q

electromyography (EMG)

A

records the electrical activity of muscles

148
Q

how do muscles and skeleton work together to move body

A

tendons connect muscles to bone in a reciprocal function. when one group contracts, it stretches the other. They are antagonistic

149
Q

striate muscle

A

this is what skeletal muscles are made of. They are overlapping layers of myosin and actin, which make them appear striped.

150
Q

motor neurons

A

come from spinal cord and brain stem

151
Q

what happens at the nueromusclular junction

A

ach is released

152
Q

one molecule of ach is equal to what

A

one twitch

153
Q

more firing means what

A

faster movement

154
Q

proprioception

A

the collection of information about body movements and position

155
Q

proprioception

A

the collection of information about body movements and position

156
Q

muscle spindle

A

a capsule, buried in other muscle fibers, that contain intrafusal fibers. It resonds to stretch.

157
Q

golgi tendon organs

A

sensitive to muscle tension

158
Q

premotor cortex

A

guided by external events

159
Q

supplementary motor area (SMA)

A

important for initiation of movement sequences

Mac- Freshman Year- Spring Semester (10 decks)

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