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PSYC 336: Developmental Psychology > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Assimilationists

A

mere quantitative differences between human and animal cognition; find the differences between humans and apes minor and quantitative

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2
Q

Differentialists

A

qualitative differences between human and animal cognition; find the differences between humans and apes as one of a kind; not minor differences

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3
Q

types of tool-craft and tool-use in primates

A

termite fishing and nut cracking with rock

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4
Q

How much genetic material do we share with the closest living relatives?

A

99%

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5
Q

Who are our closest living relatives?

A

chimpanzees and bonobos

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6
Q

We’re really different despite the 99% overlap in genetics to chimps and bonobos because we have culture and language and they don’t; the way we operate in life is fundamentally different

A

differentialist viewpoint

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7
Q

We are similar to chimpanzees and bonobos by sharing 99% overlap in genetics and our problem solving capacities, instrumental reasoning, and intellect

A

assimilationist viewpoint

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8
Q

notion of “insight”

A

seeing a problem’s solution

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9
Q

two components of insight

A

intuitive; believed apes knew the solution to a problem without having to undergo trial and error

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10
Q

What other animals outside of primates use tools?

A

crows

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11
Q

Neo-Caledonian crow

A

can use tools and form hooks to get food

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12
Q

what children/apes had to do in the peanut task

A

long narrow tube with a peanut in the bottom; had to know to pour the water into the tube to make the peanut rise to the top; apes outperformed the children (under age 6); children do not use water as a tool until at least age 8

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13
Q

insight is limited by this

A

the visual field

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14
Q

drawing causal inferences in apes

A

presented the ape with two opaque cups: in one cup is something to be retrieved (baited) and one cup is empty; shake both cups in front of the ape: one would not make a sound, while the other would; apes would reach for the cup that makes the sound; apes can infer from the sound that there is something in the cup that produces the sound; if the same experiment is presented but only one cup is shaken, the one that does not have anything it in, the ape would still infer to reach for the other cup because they know there is nothing in the cup that was shaken

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15
Q

experiment that showed chimps are not bound to the immediate visual field for problem solving but that they actually have foresight; they can think ahead

A

opening an apparatus with a specific tool on the first day, tool disappears the second day so they are unable to open the apparatus, on the third day the tool is there again so the ape takes the tool with them so that it will be available the next day no matter what

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16
Q

food caching in Western Scrub Jays

A

will hide their food for future use; successfully uncover caches 250 days or more after caching food; shows that they have episodic memory because they can remember exactly where they hid it and how

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17
Q

episodic memory

A

recalling an event/experience

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18
Q

semantic knowledge

A

recalling something factual (not necessarily remembering the experience but that it happened)

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19
Q

social cognition

A

cognitive process that have to do with other people and understanding their minds/cognition

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20
Q

sclera of humans vs. that of other primates

A

human’s scleras are white while those of other primates are not; allows humans to make eye contact and follow eye gaze more easily, encourages cooperation

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21
Q

object choice task

A

two cups, one with food in it (baited) the other without anything in it; the experimenter points to the baited cup; a human child understands that the experimenter is telling them the food is in that cup through the pointing, whereas apes do not understand what the pointing means; but when the experimenter reaches for the cup instead of pointing to it, the ape will immediately know that is the baited cup (apes are competitive animals)

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22
Q

simple visual perspective taking skills that other animals have

A

chimpanzees can understand what others can or cannot see; lower-ranking chimps will take food when the higher-ranking chimps are not looking; ability to take others’ perspectives

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23
Q

ape cognition vs. homo cognition

A

apes: know how to manipulate their environment to favor themselves; competitive in their actions; causal thinking; all that they do is for individual action
humans: know how to communicate with each other, especially to solve problems; more socially informed than the other primates

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24
Q

preschool age

A

2-6 years

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25
Q

Are the growth rates of the body and brain faster or slower in early childhood over infancy?

A

slower

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26
Q

Is motor drive stronger or less developed in early childhood over infancy?

A

stronger; ability to use and control their bodies grows by leaps and bounds

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27
Q

motor drive

A

the pleasure young children take in using their new motor skills

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28
Q

early childhood sleep

A

need 12-15 hours

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29
Q

most 2-5 years old receive this amount of sleep

A

below 9.5 hours; sleep deprivation; especially prominent in low-income families

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30
Q

weaning off breastfeeding

A

infants are generally fully weaned by 2 years old in industrialized countries; less developed countries will breastfeed children until 4 years old as long as they are still producing milk)

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31
Q

obesity in early childhood

A

if a child is obese between 2 and 4 years old, they are five times more likely to be obese later

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32
Q

percentage of US households that are food-insecure

A

14-15%

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33
Q

percentage of US households that are food-insecure with hunger

A

5-6%

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34
Q

percentage of the adult weight of the brain present in the beginning of early childhood

A

80%

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35
Q

notable changes in brain during early childhood is due to…

A

increased length and branching of neurons, myelination, synaptic pruning

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36
Q

Piaget’s stage for early childhood

A

preoperational stage (2-6 years)

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37
Q

preoperational stage (2-6 years)

A

children are unable to decenter their thinking or to think through the consequences of their actions; precausal thinking; not logical; inherent egocentrism; thinking is infused with error and confusion; mythical and circular reasoning; centration; confuse cause and effect

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38
Q

three manifestations of the thinking in preoperational stage

A

animism, mythical thinking; confuse cause and effect; confusion of appearance and reality (thinking reality is appearance)

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39
Q

centration

A

focus on one dimension or feature to the exclusion of all other dimensions or features

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40
Q

realism error

A

believing things appear the way they are

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41
Q

phenomenism error

A

things are the way they look

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42
Q

mental operation

A

mental process by which information is combined, separated, sorted, and transformed in a logical fashion

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43
Q

the inhibition problem

A

difficulty with inhibition/inhibitory control; cannot stop themselves from doing things

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44
Q

marshmallow task

A

sat a child down at a table with a plate with one marshmallow on it; tell the child they can either eat the marshmallow now or wait until the experimenter comes back to have two marshmallows; children who were able to resist the temptation and wait for the second marshmallow did better in school, had a lower rate of divorce, lower use of substances, etc.

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45
Q

experiment with the closed box

A

child was presented with a closed box and the experimenter tells them they cannot look in the box while they are gone; almost everyone looks but hardly admits to it; when asked if they can predict what’s in the box even through they said they didn’t look it in, they will say what they saw

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46
Q

abstraction makes it easier for children to delay gratification

A

experiment where the child was presented with two images and was told that if they want the content of one image, to point at the other (less is more); one image with a large amount of candy and another image with one piece of candy; hard for the child to understand to point to the image with one piece of candy to get the large amount of candy; Task became easier with abstraction (using images of things that are not pleasurable like candy i.e. marbles)

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47
Q

scale errors

A

children treating miniature objects as normal-sized ones; rare

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48
Q

Heider and Simmel

A

shows participants a video of moving geometric objects and were told to narrate; participants used agency terminology like mental states; understood the objects’ actions like humans

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49
Q

theory of mind

A

the capacity to understand other people by ascribing mental states to them

50
Q

examples of mental states

A

desires, intentions, beliefs, hopes, fears

51
Q

1 year: perception-goal psychology

A

understand perceptions and goals

52
Q

between 1-2 years

A

child understands intentions and desires

53
Q

4-5 years: belief-desire psychology

A

beliefs are the mental states that are the most difficult for children to understand; more abstract and private than the other mental states; looser link to action; beliefs are meant to inform you of reality

54
Q

brokkoli study

A

18-month-olds were given a cracker and a piece of broccoli to choose between; the child chose the cracker; the experimenter would choose the broccoli over the cracker in front of the child; if the child understood desires, when the experimenter requested food by holding out their hand, the infant would hand the experimenter the broccoli

55
Q

two major tests for belief understanding

A

change of location task and change of content task

56
Q

change of location task

A

infant watches a play in which a first puppet places something in a box then leaves, then a second puppet comes in and moves the object from the box into another box; when the first puppet comes back, the experimenter asks the infant which box the puppet will look in

57
Q

two possible responses to the change of location task

A

1) infant says the puppet will look in the second box where the object actually is; around 3 years old; cannot understand the first puppet holds a false belief
2) infant says the puppet will look in the first box; around 4-5 years old; understands the theory of mind and beliefs

58
Q

change of content task

A

present the infant with a conventional and easily recognizable container (like a bag of M&M’s); experimenter asks the infant what they expect to be in the container and they say the obvious answer (M&M’s); infant opens the container and sees that it contains something other than what is expected (crayons instead of M&M’s); experimenter then asks the infant what they thought was in the container before they opened it

59
Q

two possible responses to the change of content task

A

1) infant says they thought the container held the crayons; around 3 years old; do not understand that they had a false belief
2) infant says they thought the container held the obvious objects; around 4-5 years old; understand theory of mind and that they had a false belief

60
Q

relevance of the theory of mind

A

orientation in social world; enables effective learning; relation between social competence and theory of mind; condition of mental health (autism, schizophrenia)

61
Q

theory-theory

A

infants are like scientists in the crib; infants observe people and come up with theories as to why people do the things they do; will experiment with people to see how they react to certain situations; attribute them to desires and other mental states

62
Q

simulation theory

A

infant will use themself as a model to simulate situations and come to a conclusion as to what others would feel in the situation

63
Q

gradual development from implicit to explicit

A

1 year: perceptual sensitivity to belief-involving scenarios
GAP
4-5 years: correct judgement about beliefs; predict other’s actions/ascribe their beliefs; consider one’s own prior belief; something happens before 4-5 years to make a child develop a theory of mind

64
Q

the Smurf study

A

infant (5 months) watches a screen with a video of a smurf; the smurf interacts with the infant as if they are both watching the same scenario; infant and smurf watches as a ball rolls behind a barrier; smurf leaves and the infant watches as the ball rolls away completely; smurf comes back and the barrier is removed to show there is no ball there anymore; infant is not surprised, but the smurf is; infant looks longer when the smurf returns to the scene and seems shocked which shows an implicit and basic understanding that the smurf has a false belief about where the ball is

65
Q

theory of mind and siblings

A

having a sibling helps an infant develop a theory of mind

66
Q

cookie monster scenario

A

infant watches a play with cookie monster; cookie monster places 10 cookies in a box on the stage saying he’s excited to eat them later then leaves; another character comes on stage and takes some of the cookies; cookie monster comes back and does not yet see that some of the cookies are gone because the box is closed; infant’s expression reveals that they are experiencing tension because they understand the cookie monster holds a false belief and will soon find out there are fewer cookies than he thought; expressions of confusion (brow furrowing), closing mouth that was previously open; infants do not show expressions of tension when they know the cookie monster knows there are less cookies now; shows that infants understand the difference between true and false beliefs at 4-5 years old

67
Q

socialization

A

process by which children acquire standards, values, and knowledge of their society

68
Q

personality formation

A

process by which children develop their own unique patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving in a wide variety of circumstances

69
Q

Erik Erikson - “terrible twos”

A

phase in which autonomy develops; if the child leaves this stage continuing to assert themselves, they maintain that initiative

70
Q

Erikson: initiative vs. guilt phase (3-5 years)

A

dawning of a free will; continue to declare autonomy in ways that begin to conform to the social roles and moral standards of society; start identifying with others and learn to cooperate with others; help and cooperation

71
Q

How did human children do in comparison to chimpanzees when it came to cooperation in the double tube game?

A

better

72
Q

double tube game

A

experiment in which a child/ape and the experimenter joint play with a double tube; child/ape rolls the ball down the tube and the experimenter catches the ball with a jar; when the experimenter stops putting the jar up to the end of the tube, the child stops and gestures and demands the experimenter continue cooperation; ape will try to play the game by themself and fill both roles instead of recruiting another ape that is available to play

73
Q

if chimpanzees choose to cooperate…

A

they only do so in problem solving (do not joint play)

74
Q

Clark & Clark doll test

A

presented two dolls of different skin tones (black or white) to various African American and white children; results: white bias, 2/3’s of African American children preferred the white doll and ascribed more positive attributes to it; indicates the child understands society prefers white people

75
Q

Does the doll test show that these children of color deny ethnic belonging to a minority or deny a part of their self?

A

no relationship to self-esteem has been found

76
Q

ethnic-related messages that are sent to a child

A

cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of racial mistrust, egalitarianism

77
Q

cultural socialization

A

emphasizes ethnic heritage and pride

78
Q

preparation for bias

A

stresses ethnic discrimination and prejudice; prepare kids to face biases and inform them of what to do

79
Q

promotion of racial mistrust

A

encourages child to mistrust the majority ethnicity

80
Q

egalitarianism

A

emphasizes the equality of members of all ethnicities

81
Q

which ethnic-related message is considered the best practice

A

cultural socialization

82
Q

I-self

A

a person’s sense of self as persisting over time; waking up knowing that you are the same person as you were yesterday or a year ago; this continuity is essential to autobiographical memory

83
Q

me-self

A

a person’s sense of personal characteristics such as appearance and abilities that can be objectively known

84
Q

young children describe themselves…

A

in overly positive ways; by listing activities and favorite things instead of naming general traits or characteristics; action and behavior oriented in self-perception

85
Q

age at which autobiographical memory kicks in

A

3-4 years

86
Q

How may parents contribute to the building of autobiographical memory?

A

use an elaborative talking style; asking questions to get the child talking about what happened

87
Q

super-ego

A

the conscience; develops around 5 years; observes the ego, gives order, and punishes

88
Q

moral sense

A

internalized moral standards of our parents, especially the same-sex parent

89
Q

cognitive-developmental view

A

effect is everything, intention is nothing; if Zack breaks 4 toys on accident and Fritz damages his sister’s favorite doll on purpose to hurt her feelings, young children will say Zack is “naughtier” because he broke more toys than Fritz; heteronomous morality vs. autonomous morality

90
Q

heteronomous morality

A

morality defined in terms of externally imposed controls and objective consequences; a parent catching you doing something bad and punishing you; “being bad” is “getting caught”

91
Q

autonomous morality

A

one’s moral judgements are freely chosen, intentions are taken into account when actions are morally evaluated; your internalized moral laws; making your own moral judgements; judging you behaviors against your own rules

92
Q

social domain view

A

different kinds of “right” and “wrong”; social conventions vs. moral rules; 3- to 4-year-olds can distinguish between social conventions and moral rules

93
Q

social conventions

A

vary between cultural groups, are ways to coordinate behavior among individuals; violations not necessarily “terrible”

94
Q

moral rules

A

more general, based on principles of justice and welfare of others, found in all societies

95
Q

prosocial behavior

A

voluntary actions intended to benefit others when it involves some “costs” (time, effort, risk, etc.)

96
Q

Martin Hoffman’s development of empathy

A

three steps: global empathy, egocentric empathy, decentered

97
Q

global empathy

A

emotional contagion; if you put a baby in a room of crying babies, that baby will begin to cry; resonating with what’s around you; infancy

98
Q

egocentric empathy

A

comfort others, but in an inappropriate or egocentric fashion; child resorts to solving problems for others in the way that their problems would be solved; child can only understand what is comforting to them; early childhood

99
Q

decentered

A

empathy as role-taking and perspective-taking skills increase; focus on others’ particular situations and needs; ages 6+

100
Q

Nancy Eisenberg

A

empathy can turn into sympathy or personal distress; sympathy is good, personal distress is bad; sympathy is other-oriented and correlated with altruistic acts

101
Q

Bertrand Russell’s two types of knowledge

A

knowledge by acquaintance, knowledge by description

102
Q

knowledge by acquaintance

A

acquired through direct experience or sensory perception

103
Q

knowledge by description

A

acquired through language, communication, or reasoning rather than direct experience

104
Q

main difference between knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description

A

direct experience

105
Q

children rely on…

A

benevolent sharers of knowledge

106
Q

ostensive communication

A

a signal to a child that a person has an intention to teach something to them and that what they learns has general importance and relevance; eye gaze, brow raises, body movements, facial expressions, generic language, infant-directed speech

107
Q

three ways of reproducing behavior

A

mimikry, emulation, imitation

108
Q

mimikry

A

copying of behavior

109
Q

emulation

A

copying an outcome/result

110
Q

imitation

A

reproduction of means and ends

111
Q

most important way of reproducing behavior for cultural transmission

A

imitation; pass on long-lived skills, customs, techniques, etc. from one generation to the next

112
Q

apes can distinguish between being “unwilling” vs. “unable” to help

A

experimenter holds out an apple to the ape and when the ape reaches for it, the experimenter takes it away –> ape becomes frustrated and throws a fit –> understands the experimenter is unwilling to give them the apple;
experimenter holds out an apple but their hand is shaking so the apple keeps falling out of their hand –> ape is more patient –> understands the experimenter is unable to hand them the apple

113
Q

apes collaborate only under certain conditions

A

when they know they need a partner to achieve a goal (and will choose the most effective partner possible); will not collaborate in games without motivation

114
Q

chimpanzees cannot achieve this

A

joint intentionality; unique to human cognition

115
Q

sex

A

biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female; defined by body

116
Q

gender

A

socially influenced characteristics by which people define themselves as male, female, or nonbinary; defined by mind

117
Q

gender roles

A

societal expectations of men/women; changes because societal expectations change

118
Q

gender identity

A

individual sense of being male or female; personal

119
Q

social learning theory

A

assumes we acquire our identity in childhood by observing and imitating other gender-linked behaviors; rewarded and punished for acting in certain ways; people tend to treat children in certain ways based on what they perceive to be their gender

120
Q

experiment with opaque box condition and clear box condition

A

apes and children watch as an experimenter interacts with an opaque box, going through certain steps to retrieve a treat; both imitate in opaque box condition; apes and children watch as an experimenter interacts with a clear box, going through certain steps to retrieve a treat, but it is clear that those steps are unnecessary to actually retrieving the treat; apes emulate in clear box condition while children imitate; shows that apes only want the treat whereas children followed the adults completely because they look to them as trusted teachers; apes do not necessarily learn from each other

121
Q

natural pedagogy

A

a kind of social learning in which knowledge or skill transfer between individuals is accomplished by communication

PSYC 336: Developmental Psychology (2 decks)

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