Lecture 1&2 - Global Variations in Urbanisation and Urban Growth Trends

Question 1

Many cities and towns face similar problems like…

Answer 1

1. Lack of jobs (economic)
2. Homelessness & expansion of squatter settlements, inadequate services & infrastructure, poor health & educational services (social)
3. High lvls of pollution (environmental)

Question 2

What is urban development/sustainability?

Answer 2

Improves quality of life IN A CITY (econo, socia, enviro, ecolo) w/o leave burden on future gen

Question 3

To be defined as a city, it must have … Otherwise, it is a…

Answer 3

At least 1 million population (may differ in diff countries)

Less than that, it’s a town

Question 4

What 5 ways quantify an urban area as physical entity?

Answer 4

1. Population size
2. Physical features
3. Economic activity
4. Administrative criteria
5. Functional definitions

Question 5

What 2 ways define urban as a quality?

Answer 5

1. Cognitive mapping
2. Urbanism as a way of life

Question 6

With Urbanism as a way of life, how does urban differ from rural?

Answer 6

1. More individualistic than community based
2. More fast paced than rural
3. More options and choices than rural
4. Served by many fac and amenities

Question 7

State the limits of defining ‘urban’ and explain

Answer 7

1. Highly western-centric
   - Place matters; different cultural practices
   - No one-size-fits-all definition
2. Assumes ‘rural’ and ‘urban’ are totally distinct opposites
   - ‘Rural livelihoods’ still exist in some cities eg Chengzhongcun in Beijing (villages in a city)
   - Hi tech farm in urban cities eg vertical farming, hydroponic farming
   Eg SG, Vertical farming by Sky Greens for local urban pop n
3. Ambiguous nature of rural-urban fringe
   Eg. Sewage of cities may flow into rural areas
   - rural and urban areas form feedback loop
   - multidirectional flows btw rural and urban areas

Question 8

What is rural-urban fringe?

Answer 8

zone of transit n btw built-up area and countryside,
Where there is often competition for land use

Question 9

Define urbanisation, urbanisation level, rate of urbanisation and urban growth.

Answer 9

Urbanisation:
The increasing proport n of national pop n living in cities

Urbanisation level:
% of pop n of region, country or world living in urban areas

Rate of urbanisation:
NUMBER of ppl moving into urban areas in a given period of time

Urban growth:
Absolute increase in no of ppl living in urban area

Question 10

What is the global trend for urbanisation?

Answer 10

World been urbanising rapidly in last decade
- In 1800, only 3% of world pop n are urban dwellers
- By 1950, this figure rose to 30%, 47% by 2000 and 55% by 2018
- By 2050, expected to be 75% w 8.5 billion ppl, according to UN pop n 2030 report

Question 11

Elucidate on urbanisation level and support with examples.

Answer 11

• High lvl urban n witnessed in DCs
  ie many cities in DCs w 1 million ppl
  Eg UK, a DC, >100 urban settlements w >1 million pop n
• In LDCs, oni few large cities but many small urban centres consist of provincial towns, in which urban pop n < 1 million ; low lvl of urban n
  Eg Oni 1 city, Abuja in Nigeria, W. Africa w a large urban pop n
  There are numerous small towns, oni 20 small urban settlements w <1 million ppl
  Thus, low lvl of urban n

Question 12

What are the projected urban n trends in
DCs
and
LDCs?

Answer 12

DCs
- Urban n tends b centripetal, cities act as magnet, draw in ppl and econ activity
- Higher proport n of ppl in DCs will take up residences in cities ~80% by 2030

LDCs
- More ppl projected to move to urban settlements and by 2030, >50% will live in LDC cities

Question 13

How do urbanisation rate and level vary in
DCs
and
LDCs? And why is it so?

Answer 13

DCs
-Higher lvl of urban n
- Lower rate of urban n presently -> low urban growth rate/decline
Due to higher proport n of ppl live in urban areas since IR (1800s to 1950s).
DCs said to have peaked in their urban n process

LDCs
- Lower lvl of urban n
- Higher rate of urban n presently -> high urban growth
As only saw increasing proport n post WW2; started industrialising much later

Question 14

How are URBANISATION trends different in DCs and LDCs? Briefly describe.

Answer 14

DCs
Urban n (eg in European countries) relatively gradual process (typically stems fr intense econ development due to IR)

LDCs
Most LDCs (eg in Asia and Africa) experience much more rapid rate of urban n at much later time period bcos of various reasons

Question 15

Where, when and why did rapid urban n occur? (Hint: DCs and LDCs)

Answer 15

DCs
1750 to 1930s, eg Britain
Due to econ development

LDCs
After 1950s, eg India and China
Due to natural pop n increase and rural-urban migration

Question 16

What are the ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors of rural-urban migrat n?

Answer 16

Push
-Mechanisat n of agricultural jobs (in rural areas)
- Reduction in jobs available in rural areas - ppl go to urban areas to look for jobs

Pull
- varied opportunities available
Eg employment, better access to services like hc, edu n, leisure activities, etc.
- Improvement in transportat n facilities -> easily move to urban areas

Question 17

How does natural pop n increase happen? Explain why

Answer 17

High birth rate + low death rate = high natural pop n increase, thanks to improved medical tech, care and facilities

• Medical tech eg vaccines, to prevent spread of disease

-Medical care eg enough care given by professionals doctors and nurses

• Medical facilities eg adequate no of hospitals and clinics - sanitary and hygienic conditions for effective rehabilitative process

=> Reduces infant mortality rate ( higher BR) and lengthened life expectancy (lower DR)

Question 18

List and explain causes of rapid urban n

Answer 18

1. Intense econ dvlpment
   IR created many job opportun -> attract rural ppl to flock to cities for employment
   -> agglomeration of economies
   - conc of associated industries within same location ensued in higher product n levels at lower costs
   = attract more industries to be set up in urban area
   = create jobs = higher income earned
2. Improvements in communications and transport systems in DC urban areas
   -> encourage, facilitate mvment of ppl from rural to urban areas
3. Provision wider variety of goods and services eg btr hc, edu n, social and cultural activities attract more ppl to move to DC urban areas
4. Agricultural improvements
   Farm mechanisat n displaced rural workers who then flocked to urban areas
5. Self sustained Natural Pop n Growth (high br, low dr) in DC urban areas
   - > pop n inertia due to
   - improved medical care eg vaccines, sufficient hospitals
   -btr living condition (hygiene and sanitation)

Question 19

Based on DCs’ experiences over the years, what are the main Urban Processes that can be identified? Briefly describe each process

Answer 19

1. Urbanisation
   associated w econ dvlpment and urban areas grow at cost of surrounding rural areas
2. Suburbanisation
   When urban ring (commuter belt) grows at cost of urban core (physically built-up city)
3. Counter-urbanisation
   This occurs when proport n of urban pop n decrease as some ppl prefer to commute
4. Re-urbanisation
   Associated w urban renewal of cities - core start regain pop n w ring still losing pop n

Question 20

Explain urbanisation process

Answer 20

Since 18th century in UK, % of urban dwellers rose rapidly fr ~30% in 1801 to 80% in 1901. Urban n brought abt by

• R-U migrat n
  due to industrial growth -> attract large no of ppl live near factories (many econ opportun). Also dvlpment in road, railway, sewage system and provision of more services
• Transport revolut n
  Canals in 18th century and railways in 19th century enabled towns grow into cities (ppl and goods now could travel/b transport to urban areas faster, at lower prices
• Agricultural improvements
  Mechanisat n needed fewer ppl to work in agriculture - more moved to urban areas where industrial sectors need more workers in manufacturing activities

Question 21

Explain suburban n in DCs

Answer 21

the process by which people, factories, offices and shops move out of the central areas of cities and into the edge/periphery of cities known as the suburbs.

• decentralisation of ppl, employment, and services from inner and central areas of cities towards cities’ periphery/edge
• this lateral expansion of city area leads to build-up of suburbs -> aka the urban sprawl

Question 22

What are factors encouraging sub urban n?

Answer 22

1. Presence of centrifugal forces in city area
   Eg overcrowding, increased industrial, traffic pollut n, trafic congest n, etc.
2. Increasing affluence and expectations of pop n
   - Can afford own cars and sub urban houses (commute to work no longer a problem)
   - preference for suburban housing, ppl desire for a less congested, quieter, less polluted environ (perceived to be
   - more spacious w garden
   - cleaner (no pollut n)
   - tranquil (no noise pollut n fr traffic and less crime ridden)
3. Provision of housing in suburbs
   i. Private housing estates
   Suburban housing - for those who cld afford them - more spacious w garden, cleaner, less crime ridden

ii. Public housing
(aka Council housing in UK) provided after WW1 and on greater scale after WW2 on estates in suburbs

iii. Slum clearance
of Victorian terraced houses led to re-housing ppl in suburbs

4. Improved transport
   Ppl transit to and from workplace easily thanks to rails and tramways; bus routes extended into suburbs; increased car ownership; development of transport infrastr eg roads, railways
   - gradual Decentralisation of ppl, industry (industrial estates), offices, and recently retailing (referred to as four waves of Decentralisation)

Question 23

What is counter-urban n?

Answer 23

• defined as the process where people move away from towns and cities to live in rural areas farther away.
  -> ppl abandon cities for essentially rural areas
  -began in 1950s, accelerated over following decades, esp in USA, France, UK (pop n of whole urban areas declined)
  -ppl moving to rural areas are commuters, those who can work from home and retirees

Question 24

What are factors encouraging counter-urban n? Explain

Answer 24

1. Improvements in transport
   esp construct n of new motorways, rails routes -> long distance commuting
2. Improvements in info tech
   Eg faxes, e-mail, video conferencing facilities -> ppl can work fr home (home-working, tele-working)
3. Improved health, edu n, social services in rural areas (relocat n of offices, shops, industries)
   Ppl may relocate to rural areas BUT socially, still tend to continue w urban habits and lifestyles
4. Appeal of rural areas compared to congested, polluted cities
   Ppl r prepared for longer travel at higher cost for more pleasant and serene living environ in rural areas - perceives that Rural Idyllic Environment offer btr quality of life than urban areas
5. Growth of retirement migrat n
   DC retirees r healthy, relatively affluent ppl - rural environ offer btr perceived quality of life and lower cost of living to many retirees

Question 25

What happens at central city as a result of sub and counter urban n ? (Hint: diva hand)

Answer 25

Urban pop n loss

Economic:
Loss jobs, lack tax revenue, less vibrant economic activities, less investment, etc.

Social:
Poor/jobless remain behind, poor access to basic amenities, deteriorate living condit n

Environ:
Infrastr not well maintained eg roads, lightings not repaired, etc.

Question 26

What is reurbanisation? Explain

Answer 26

-process by which cities that hv been experiencing depopulat n now can reverse decline, grow again due to net in-migrat n of ppl into city

• in last few yrs, British cities hv reversed pop n decline to a limited extent
  -re urban n possible thanks to cities giving themselves face-lift (urban re-imaging) by dvlping centres or decayed inner city zone

Question 27

What are factors encouraging reurban n?

Answer 27

Increase govt finance in urban areas like

1. New urban city design
   Eg rebuild of Manchester’s City centre after IRA bomb explosion allowed planners add new pedestrian areas, green spaces and residential accommodat n
2. Urban traffic restrict n measures
   cut down traffic->decreased pollut n
3. Rise of DINKs gen
   Hv lesser demand for bigger suburban family hosues
4. Desire for urban lifestyle
   eg. Arts and culture
5. More improvements in standards, maintenance of inner city housing and gentrification

Question 28

What are methods to re-image inner city as throbbing metropolis?

Answer 28

1. Refurbishment of inner city by demolish old, derelict buildings
2. Re-locate low-income families to suburbs by dvlop low-cost housing
3. Invite private dvlopers to purchase land and dvlop area
4. Allow ‘state of the arts’ establishments to dvlop at Brownfield sites

Question 29

What reasons explain the rapid rate of urban n in LDCs? Briefly describe

Answer 29

1. Rapid pop n growth
   Due to large scale rural-urban migrat n and natural pop n increase
2. Modernisat n of agriculture
   Agricultural improvements ie farm mechanisat n
3. Improvements in transport and communication systems
4. Provision of wider variety of gds and services eg btr hc, edu n, social and cultural activities
   attract more ppl to move to DC urban area

Question 30

What factors contribute to rapid pop n growth in LDCs

Answer 30

Mainly due to:
- large scale rural-urban migrat n
Bcos of rapid pop n growth in rural areas exerting Pa on land resources & carrying capacity
->displacement of agricultural workers due to enhanced tech
->rural migrants attracted by job opportun in cities

• natural pop n increase
  High br and low dr —> cities grow -> urban growth
  ie self-sustained natural pop n growth in cities

Br higher in urban areas bcos
i. Immigrants usually economically, socially active grp btw 14-35 yrs
ii. Greater wealth of towns meant
-btr hc and facilities
-btr food and nutrition
- btr hygiene and sanitation
==> large familes r viable in urban cities. Life expectancy longer while lower dr

Question 31

Explain agricultural improvements. Give examples

Answer 31

Farm mechanisat n displaced workers who then flocked to urban areas

-adopt n of high agricultural tech eg btr machinery (tractors, planting methods) demands few agri workers
-> redundant workers forced to migrate to cities to search for work
Eg in Zimbabwe, Kenya, S. Africa and Chile
- switched to produce more cash crop
Eg coffee, tea, flowers, vegetables -> generate export revenue to pay for debts to Western Banks.
- crops must b produced as large scale and cheap as possible
- hence, adopted modern agri tech, reducing need for workers

Question 32

Elucidate improvements in transport and communications systems

Answer 32

Access to media eg radio, magazines, esp. spread of TV, improved communicat n, breaks down localism
- glamourised city life, promote LDC ppl’s awareness of urban living standards
- generate discontent w local conditions
- build hope for btr lifestyle in cities
News fr ppl who migrated to cities spread info and ideas, reinforcing chain of migrat n

Improved transport
- improvements in transport tech greatly increase mobility of ppl

Question 33

Define sustainable urban development

Answer 33

Dvlpment improving quality of life in city including econ, social, environ/ecolo components w/o leaving burden on future gen