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Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

1
Q

What is coding?

A

The way in which info is remembered e.g. sounds

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2
Q

What is capacity?

A

How much information can be stored

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3
Q

What is duration

A

Length of time information is stored for

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4
Q

What is the STM capacity

A

7±2

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5
Q

What is the STM duration?

A

18-30 S

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6
Q

What is the STM coding?

A

Acoustic (Sounds & Words)

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7
Q

Miller

A

7±2
People can record 5 words as easily as 5 letters because of chunking

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8
Q

Peterson & Peterson

A

24 Participants
3 consonants, 3 numbers e.g. WRT 398 known as a trigram
Count back in 3’s from 100 to avoid rehearsal
Interval of 3,6,9,12,15,18 S
80% recall at 3s
10% recall at 18s

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9
Q

What is the capacity of LTM

A

Limitless

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10
Q

What is the coding of LTM

A

Semantic

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11
Q

What is the duration of LTM

A

A lifetime

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12
Q

Bahrick

A

400 people (17-74)

Showed 50 people from old year book photos

After 15 years, 90% accurate at identifying faces, 60% free recall

After 48 years, 70% accurate at identifying faces, 30% free recall

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13
Q

Sensory register capacity

A

unlimited

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14
Q

Baddely (1966)

A

List of words that were:
Acoustically similar (e.g. cat/ mat)
dissimilar (e.g. cat/ pen)
Semantically similar (e.g. big/ large)
dissimilar (e.g. big/ good)
Immediately harder to remember acoustic, easier semantic
Later easier acoustic, harder semantic

This is because the STM is acoustic and so is list A which over loades the STM

Reverse for other list

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15
Q

Sensory register duration

A

250ms

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16
Q

Capacity, coding and duration evaluation

A

T.L - peoples capacities are individually different (6year olds could remember 6.6 digits and 19 year olds 8.6 as found by Jacob)

R.L. In the peterson and peterson study, the counting back in 3’s may have overridden the digits they needed to remember

R.S - Bahrick’s study has good ecological validity as looking at old photographs and trying to recall names is a task most people do in real life - C.A - However, Bahrick would have had less control over the variables in the study
Some people may have had better recall as they were still in the same town and maybe still in contact with the people in the yearbook
Others may have had poor recall as they never really knew the names of the people in the yearbook in the first place as they were less social in high school

Research highly controlled so few extraneous variables

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17
Q

Sensory register coding

A

modality specific

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18
Q

Who proposed the multi store memory model

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin

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19
Q

What is the multi-store memory model?

A

I Info in
I
I Sensory memory —> forgetting
I
I (Attention)
I
I STM —> forgetting
I
I (Rehearsal)
I
I LTM —> forgetting
v

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20
Q

Korsakoff’s Syndrome. What theory does it support?

A

A brain disorder caused by alcohol abuse

People may experience amnesia

Functional STM but cannot transfer to LTM

Supports the idea that they are separate stores

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21
Q

What was the HM case study? What theory does it support?

A

HM suffered with extreme epilepsy

Had his hippocampus removed.

His condition improved but he suffered from memory loss.

anterogade amnesia

He was still able to create STM but was unable to form new LTM

Supports multi-store memory model as STM was fine but he couldn’t transfer to LTM

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22
Q

Multi-store memory model evaluation

A

App - Help explain cases like HM and how to treat them

O.A - Working memory model. Multi store memory model is too simplistic (KF had a motor cycle accident but lost specifically short term verbal memory) but WMM corrects this

R.L - peterson and petersons nonsense trigrams arent learned in real life. Therefore lacks mundane realism. Also measures interference rather than duration

R.S Brain scanning techniques have supported the model. Beardsley found the prefrontal cortex was active during STM but not LTM. Squire found that the hippocampus is used in LTM

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23
Q

Who proposed the working memory model?

A

Baddely & Hitch

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24
Q

What are the sections of the working memory model

A

Central executive
Phonological loop
Episodic buffer
Visuo-Spatial sketchpad

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25
Q

What does the central executive do?

A

Limited capacity - data arrives from the senses - determines how slave systems are allocated
Does reasoning and decision making tasks
Could be divided into other components

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26
Q

What does the phonological loop do?

A

Limited capacity - Deals with auditory information and preserves word order

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27
Q

What can the phonological loop be sub divided into?

A

Phonological store (words heard)

Articulatory process (words heard, seen and silently repeated - maintenance rehearsal)

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28
Q

What does the visuo-spatial sketchpad do?

A

Visual - What things look like
Spatial- Relationships between things
Limited capacity (3-4 objects)

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29
Q

What can the visuo-spatial sketchpad be divided into

A

Visuo-cache - (how things look)

Inner scribe (spatial information)

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30
Q

What does the episodic buffer do?

Why was it added?

A

Added after Baddely realised he needed a more general store

Slave systems too specific

Central executive has no storage capacity

Integrates info from other stores (4 chunks)

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31
Q

Baddely (1975) (dual task methodology)

A

1st condition
1st task - occupies central executive (true or false quiz)
2nd task - occupies phonological loop (repeat “the”)

2nd condition
Repeat the quiz and this time say random digits - Uses central executive and phonological loop)

Performance was significantly worse in 2nd condition as both tasks are using the same component

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32
Q

Baddely world length effect

A

Participants recall more words correctly from a list of short words compared to long words

This supports the role of the phonological loop and its capacity is around what you can say in 2 seconds

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33
Q

3 similarities and 3 differences between the memory models

A

Similarities:
Both have separate LTM & STM
Both have a capacity
Process info

Differences:
Info goes to STM then LTM through rehearsal in MSM but WMM = just process it
WMM has slave systems
MSM is more simplistic

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34
Q

Working memory model evaluation

A

Application - used to test for people with slow processing and then help them e.g. teachers spend more time with them

Opposing argument - multi-store memory model (evidence shows repeating info helps loop it into LTM which goes with MSM)

Studies lack mundane realism as this sort of experiments isn’t an every day occurrence (true or false quiz whilst repeating the. There may be more realistic studies such as listening to music whilst studying

EVR had a cerebral brain tumour removed. He could reason suggesting his CE was ok but not make decisions suggesting it was damaged. Therefore suggests central executive must be sub divided

R.S. Case study reported that brain-damaged patient KF could recall visual but not verbal information immediately after its presentation, which supports the WMM’s claim that:
Separate short-term stores manage short-term phonological and visual memories.

35
Q

What are the 3 types of LTM

A

Semantic
Episodic
Procedural

36
Q

Implicit vs Explicit memories

A

Implicit - knowing how - driving a car

Explicit - Knowing that - Knowing that a car carries people from A - B

37
Q

What is semantic LTM

A

Knowledge of the world (facts/animals etc)

38
Q

What is episodic LTM

A

Recalling events from our lives - likened to a diary

39
Q

What is procedural LTM

A

Memory for actions and skills

40
Q

Where did the types of LTM come from

A

Tulving thought the working memory model was too simplistic so he came up with the 3 stores

41
Q

How does HM provide support for different types of LTM

A

His procedural LTM was intact.

Episodic was damaged but not procedural as he could learn how to do things.

Doesn’t say anything about semantic memory

42
Q

Types of LTM evaluation

A

Evidence of separate LTM stores from brain scans. The hippocampus and temporal lobe are active during episodic memory tasks.
Semantic - temporal lobe. Procedural - Cerebellum which is involved in learning

Helps treat some cases of memory impairment - older people who have mild cognitive decline can be trained to increase their episodic memory (compared to controls)

HM support however only a case study

It has been suggested there are 4 stores (procedural representation - if someone says yellow and asks to to say a fruit, you are more likely to say banana as you have been primed )

43
Q

What is interference theory? What makes it more likely?

A

Previous or new knowledge might interfere with an existing memory.
One memory disturbs the recall of another.
Interference theory is more likely to happen if the memories are similar.

44
Q

What is retroactive interference

A

Learn new things so old things forgotten

45
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

Old things stored so can’t remember new things

46
Q

McGeoch and Macdonald

A

Studies retroactive interference
Participants learn a set of words to 100% recall
Then learnt a second list:
1. Synonyms (only 12% recall)
2. Antonyms
3. Random Words
4. Random Syllable’s (26%)
5. 3 Digit Numbers (37%)
6. Control - no new list jus te tested

Shows similarity affects interference

47
Q

Baddely and Hitch

A

Rugby players recalled names of opposing teams over a season
Some players were in more games than others
If memories simply decay over time then they should all have the same recall
Players who played more games forgot due to interference

48
Q

Interference theory evaluation

A

Research uses artificial tasks which reduces external validity (random lists of words)

Opposing argument - retrieval failure. Inteference effects are reduced when researchers provide cues indicating that cueing may be more important

Application - in revision strategies by avoiding simmilar material when revising for exams

Researchers might purposely create conditions where interference is likely to occur, such as by limiting the time between learning something and trying to recall it e.g. if you kust learn a list of worlds and then get tested, your brain hasnt had time to consolidate info

49
Q

Why do we forget according to retrieval failure? Who said this?

A

Tulving - we don’t have cues to access memory
When we encode a new memory, we store information that occurred around it

50
Q

What is the encoding specificity principal

A

The greater the similarity between the encoding event and the retrieval event (e.g. location), the greater chance you have to recall it

51
Q

What principal states that info is more likely to be remembered if the retrieval event is similar to the learning event

A

The encoding specificity principal

52
Q

What are the 2 types of cue dependant forgetting?

A

Context dependant cueing
State dependant cueing

53
Q

What is context dependant cueing?

A

When encoding memory, its the environmental cues that help us remember e.g. smell, sounds

54
Q

What is state dependant cueing?

A

When encoding memory, it is our internal feelings that help us remember e.g. tired, stressed

55
Q

Godden and Baddely (what’s the %)

A

Context dependant cueing
Learn a a list of words on land, recall on land
Learn a a list of words on land, recall underwater
Learn a a list of words underwater, recall on land
Learn a a list of words underwater, recall underwater

40% lower recall in non-matching

56
Q

Carter and Cassaday

A

Mild anti-histimine sedative)
Learn on drug, recall on it
Learn on drug, recall not on it
Learn not on drug, recall on it
Learn not on drug, recall not on it

Recall worse in conditions that don’t match

State dependant cueing

57
Q

Retrieval failure evaluation

A

Application - Used for eye witnesses (cognitive interview)

Opposed by interference theory (tulving). However Tulving and Psotka did research that suggested when participants are presented with cues then the interference effects from learning multiple lists of words disappears. Therefore lack of cues may play a role in interference theory

Baddley criticised the research as he says it is unfalsifiable as it is correlational and impossible to know if something has actually acted as a cue

Nurture - forget due to environment - ignores all biology (some people may be born with better memories)

58
Q

What is eye witness testimony?

A

Evidence provided in court by someone who witnessed a crime

59
Q

What are 3 factors affecting eye witness testimony

A

Post event discussion
Leading questions
Anxiety

60
Q

What is a leading question?

A

A question without an open end

61
Q

Loftus and Palmer

A

45 students (5 groups of 9)
How fast were the cars going when they ***** into each other
Smashed 40.8
Contacted 31.8

150 participants (3 groups of 50)
Showed scenes of 2 cars colliding
Did you see any broken glass when…
One group smashed, One hit, One control (not asked about speed)
Over double said yes when smashed

62
Q

What do the results of Loftus and Palmers second experiment tell us

schemas

A

smashed and glass belong in a schema together so people are more likely to assume there was broken glass

63
Q

What is post event discussion?

A

Conversations between witnesses taking place after a crime happened

64
Q

Gabbert

A

120 participants
60 people from the University of Aberdeen
60 older people from local community

Participants watched vid of girl stealing money
Participants were either tested individually or in pairs
When pairs watched it, 1 saw the crime, 1 didn’t (they were told they saw the same video)
Participants in the co-witness group then discussed the video after
71% said they saw the crime when they didn’t
60% said guilty

65
Q

Leading questions evaluation

A

Application - criminal justice system (Interviews could be done better and Police should be mindful of what they ask witnesses)

Yuille and Cutshalll - showed the remarkable accuracy of ewt when a perp was shot by police. The 2 misleading questions had no effect on recall which was remarkably accurate (Doesn’t explain why they affect some people but not others)

The research can be very artificial. Loftus and palmers sample were aware they were taking part in research so may have behaved differently

Changed to accuracy in EWT may be better explained through anxiety. The effects of anxiety are shown through the yerekes dodson effect where small levels of anxiety may help recall but too much hinders it

R.S. Loftus did a study in which participants at Disney land were given misleading information about bugs bunny who is not a Disney character being there. These participants were more likely to report shaking hands than those in the control

66
Q

Post event discussion evaluation

A

Gabbert et al. tested two different populations, university students and older adults and found little difference between these two conditions. Therefore her results provide good population validity and allow us to conclude that post-even discussion affects younger and older adults in a similar way.

Application - of this area is that police should minimise the number of times they interview an eyewitness. They should aim to gather as much information as possible within one interview and if possible prevent doing repeated interviews. This has been shown in the research to improve the accuracy of the recall and should reduce wrongful convictions.

The research can be very artificial. Gabbert’s sample were aware they were taking part in research and not witnessing a real crime so may have behaved differently

Changed to accuracy in EWT may be better explained through anxiety. The effects of anxiety are shown through the yerekes dodson effect where small levels of anxiety may help recall but too much hinders it

67
Q

What is anxiety

A

An unpleasant emotional state where we fear something bad is going to happen

68
Q

What happens when we are anxious in stressful situations

A

Our anxiety is accompanied by peripheral arousal (increased heart rate and shallow breathing)

69
Q

Johnson and Scott

A

A person is waiting in the reception area of a lab and the receptionist walks out to run an errand leaving the participant alone

No weapon - person left lab holding pen with hands covered in grease

Weapon - heard argument/ fight sounds (breaking glass). A person ran out with a bloodied letter opener

Both groups were shown 50 pictures to identify the perp

No weapon - person identified 49% of the time
Weapon 33% of the time

Johnson claimed that the participants who saw a knife experienced higher levels of anxiety and were more likely to focus on the weapon. Therefore EWT reduced in accuracy

70
Q

Positive effects of anxiety on EWT (case study)
Yuille and Cutshall

A

After a real life shooting, 13 of the 21 witnesses agreed to reinterview after 4 months. They were compared to the real police interviews

The findings were that accuracy hardly dropped. Colours were less accurate

Participants who were most stressed were the most accurate (88% compared to 67%)

71
Q

Yerkes-Dodson effect

A

Too much anxiety prevents recall. (A combination of Johnson and Scott and Yuile and Cutshall)

72
Q

Anxiety and EWT evaluation

A

Opposed by catastrophe theory which suggests physiological arrousal increases task performance up to an optimum point at which point it decreases. Takes into account performance, cognitive anxiety and peripheral arrousal so it may better explain research into anxiety

Application - useful in court for not using EWT of people who have witnessed violent crime. Also useful for getting info from cognitive interview

Bothwell labelled people as neurotic or not. Non neurotic people experienced a rise in accuracy with increased anxiety but for neurotic people, the opposite is true. Therefore individual differences may affect peoples ability to give ewt

Deterministic

73
Q

Who proposed cognitive interview strats

A

Geiselman

74
Q

What are the 4 types of cognitive interview?

A

Report everything
Reverse the order
Go to another persons perspective
Reinstate the context

75
Q

What cognitive interview technique is reverse the order?

A

Start when the crimes done and work backwards
disrupts schema

76
Q

What cognitive interview technique is reinstate the context

A

The witness takes them back mentally to the crime and imagines how they felt etc
The encoding specificity principle

77
Q

What cognitive interview technique is report everything

A

Go through you’re entire day up until after the crime
This may trigger the recall of other info

78
Q

What cognitive interview technique is change perspective?

A

Recall the events from the perspective of another person
disrupts schema

79
Q

Cognitive interview evaluation

A

Application - used by police to have more accurate prosecutions. C.A - time and money to train police how to do it

Difficult to gather effective data on certain aspects of it e.g. changing perspective

Kohnken found an 81% increase of correct info but 61% increase in incorrect info

Nomothetic applied to everyone - however it has been found that it is less effective in young people

80
Q

What are the 2 types of rehearsal

A

Maintenance - looping info into stm by repeating it
Prolonged - repeat info over time so it goes into LTM

81
Q

What are the primacy and recency effects

A

Primacy - more likely to remember stuff at start of a list
Recency - more likely to remember stuff at end of list

82
Q

Bahrick and Peterson & Peterson evaluation

A

P&P = artificial
Lab study
May be more to do with interference than duration

Bahrick = large sample
Poor validity

83
Q

Jacobs

A

443 female students

Participants had to repeat back a string of numbers or letters in the same order and the number of digits/letters was gradually increased, until the participants could no longer recall the sequence.

Jacobs found that the student had an average span of 7.3 letters and 9.3 words, which supports Miller’s notion of 7+/-2.

capacity of STM

84
Q

Shallice and Warrington

A

Case study reported that brain-damaged patient KF could recall visual but not verbal information immediately after its presentation, which supports the WMM’s claim that:
Separate short-term stores manage short-term phonological and visual memories.

R.S for WMM

Psychology (14 decks)

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