Chapters 39 and 41

Question 1

Where do heterotrophs obtain energy and nutrients from?

Answer 1

From other organisms

Question 2

Define nutrients. What are examples of some nutrients?

Answer 2

• Substances an organism needs to remain alive
  EX: amino acids, vitamins, minerals, electrolytes

Question 3

Can essential nutrients be synthesized?

Answer 3

No, it must be obtained from food

Question 4

List the 9 amino acids humans cannot synthesize.

Answer 4

Histidine, isoleucine, Leucine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Valine, Lysine.

Question 5

Define vitamins. What are the three examples of vitamins given in the notes?

Answer 5

Vitamins are organic compounds that are vital for health nut required in minute amounts, serve as coenzymes.
EX: B1, B12, and Vitamin C

Question 6

List and explain the use of the three minerals given in the notes.

Answer 6

The three minerals are Calcium, Iron, and Magnesium. Calcium helps with teeth and bone formation, nerve signaling, and muscle response.
Fe or iron aids hemoglobin, ETC, enzyme cofactor
Mg helps the coenzyme factor.

Question 7

List and explain the use of the three electrolytes given in the notes.

Answer 7

The three electrolytes are Na, K, and Cl. Na and K help the nerve signaling, muscle response. Cl helps fluid balance in cells, protein digestion in stomach.

Question 8

Animal nutrition begins with ingestion. What are the three following steps?

Answer 8

Ingestion, then Digestion, Absorption, Elimination.

Question 9

Explain the components of mechanical digestion found in the mouth. Name structures, functions, etc.

Answer 9

The mouth consists of teeth which help tear and grind food during chewing and a tongue which helps shape food into a ball and pushes it to the back of the mouth.

Question 10

Chemical digestion occurs in the mouth as well. Explain which enzymes are found in the mouth, along with other possible substances.

Answer 10

Chemical digestion includes the salivary glands which has enzymes like amylase to digest starch and lipase to digest lipids. In the mouth there is also mucins which is used as a lubricant.

Question 11

What type of molecule does amylase digest (breakdown)? What does lipase breakdown?

Answer 11

Amylase- starch
Lipase- lipids

Question 12

How is food propelled down the esophagus?

Answer 12

By a wave of muscle contractions called peristalsis.

Question 13

Lumen of the stomach is highly ______ (acidic/basic).

Answer 13

Acidic

Question 14

The stomach is the site of protein digestion, done by the enzyme _________.

Answer 14

Pepsin

Question 15

What do mucous cells secrete? What do parietal cells secrete? Chief cells?

Answer 15

Mucous cells secrete mucus.
Parietal cells secrete HCl.
Chief cells secrete pepsinogen. (Inactive pepsin)

Question 16

What converts pepsinogen into the active form of pepsin?

Answer 16

When pepsinogen is in the acidic environment in the stomach it will convert into the active pepsin.

Question 17

Partially digested food from the stomach mixes with secretions from the _______ and
_____.

Answer 17

Pancreas and liver.

Question 18

How does the small intestine specialize in absorption of nutrients by increasing surface area?

Answer 18

Because the Epithelial tissue lining the small intestine is folded with projections called villi, which have microvilli.

Question 19

The pancreas produces hydrolytic enzymes. List the four hydrolytic enzymes, and what molecules each of them digest specifically.

Answer 19

1) Proteases - digest proteins/polypeptides
2) Nucleases - digest nucleic acids
3) Amylase - digest carbohydrates (starch)
4) Lipases - digest fats/ lipids

Question 20

What does the liver produce? How does its product aid in digestion?

Answer 20

The liver produces bile salts. Bile salts aid in digestion because they act as emulsifying agents to form smaller droplets that make it easier for lipases to breakdown.

Question 21

Describe the gallbladder’s function.

Answer 21

The gallbladder stores bile.

Question 22

What is the overall function of the large intestine?

Answer 22

The large intestine absorbs water to compact waste to form feces.

Question 23

Bacteria in the human colon produces several vitamins, such as vitamin ____.

Answer 23

Vitamin K

Question 24

Breathing begins with ventilation. What are the three following steps? Explain all four of these steps in detail.

Answer 24

1) ventilation - movement of air through a specialized gas exchange organ (lungs)
2) gas exchange - CO2 and O2 diffuse between air and the blood at the respiratory surface
3) circulation- dissolved O2 and CO2 are transported throughout the body and gas exchanges occurs between blood and cells.
4) cellular respiration

Question 25

How does O2 and CO2 flow through areas? (Hint: Low partial potential to high? Or high to low?)

Answer 25

O2 and CO2 move from areas of high partial pressure to areas of low partial pressure.

Question 26

Explain the flow of air from entering the mouth/nose to ending at the capillaries where gas exchange occurs. (Hint: Include all the structures air passes through inside the lungs as well! EX: Bronchi is a structure involved.)

Answer 26

The Air enters through the mouth and nose. It enters the trachea (windpipe) and it carries inhaled air to narrow tubes called bronchi. Then it goes to the alveoli which are tiny sacs surrounded by capillaries—-> site of gas exchange. Then goes to the lung which encloses the alveoli, bronchioles, portions of the bronchi.

Question 27

Explain how the diaphragm functions. (Hint: Explain the negative pressure and how it affects if air is moving in or out of the lungs.)

Answer 27

When you inhale the diaphragm moves down and the pressure is more negative. When the diaphragm relaxes air is exhaled because the negative pressure decreases.

Question 28

Blood is a connective tissue consisting of cells and water. List and describe the three components of blood.

Answer 28

Blood consists of
1) platelets- are cell fragments that minimize blood loss
2) white blood cells - apart of the immune system
3) red blood cells- transport oxygen from the lungs to body tissues with the help of hemoglobin (and transports CO2 from tissues to lungs)

Question 29

CO2 is produced by cellular respiration and enters the red blood cells where it is quickly converted to _______ ions and protons, in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme _________.

Answer 29

Bicarbonate ions , Carbonic anhydrase

Question 30

Describe the three types of blood vessels.

Answer 30

1) Arteries- are tough and thick walled vessels that take blood away from the heart under high pressure.
2) Capillaries- the smallest vessels, thin walls allow gases and other molecules to be exchanged with tissues in networks called capillary beds.
3) veins- vessels that return blood to the heart under low pressure.

Question 31

List the four chambers of the human heart. Which 2 receive blood from the body? Which 2 propel blood to the body?

Answer 31

The four chambers of that heart consist of the left and right atrium and the left and right ventricle.

The atriums receive blood returning from circulation.
The ventricle generate force to propel the blood through the system.

Question 32

Describe the two separate pumping circuits, and where the blood flows to from the heart specifically.

Answer 32

The pulmonary circulation is a lower pressure transportation of blood from the heart to the lungs.
The systemic circulation is a higher-pressure transportation f=of the blood from the heart to the body.

Question 33

List the flow of blood in humans through the specific chambers in the heart. (Hint: It begins with entering the right atrium!)

Answer 33

The pulmonary circuit begins in the right ventricle. Oxygen-poor blood is pumped out of the right ventricle to the pulmonary arteries, which makes their way to the pulmonary capillaries of the lungs. Then the CO2 is removed from the blood in the capillaries and oxygen is added. The oxygen rich blood travels in from the pulmonary capillaries to the pulmonary veins where they enter the left atrium of the heart then the left ventricle.

Question 34

Describe in detail the pathway of blood through the pulmonary circuit.

Answer 34

Oxygen-poor blood is pumped out of the right ventricle to the pulmonary arteries, which makes their way to the pulmonary capillaries of the lungs. Then the CO2 is removed from the blood in the capillaries and oxygen is added. The oxygen rich blood travels in from the pulmonary capillaries to the pulmonary veins where they enter the left atrium of the heart then the left ventricle.

Question 35

Describe in detail the pathway of blood through the systemic circuit.

Answer 35

The systemic circuit begins in the left ventricle. The oxygen rich blood is pumped out of the left ventricle into the aorta (largest artery in the body) which delivers oxygen rich blood to capillaries of the entire body (except the lungs) the oxygen poor cells make their way to the superior and inferior vena cava. From the vena cava the oxygen poor cells are delivered to the right atrium of the heat then to the right ventricle starting the pulmonary circuit.