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Psychology > Paper 2- Topic 2 Biopsychology > Flashcards

Paper 2- Topic 2 Biopsychology Flashcards

1
Q

define the nervous system

A
  • specialised network of cells in body, that is our primary internal communication system
  • based on electrical and chemical signals
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2
Q

role of nervous system

A
  • collect, process and respond

- communicates with and co-ordinates the different organs and cells

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3
Q

two sections of the nervous system

A

central nervous system

peripheral nervous system

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4
Q

Describe what makes up the Central Nervous System

A

•brain

  • centre of conscious awareness
  • cerebral cortex wraps around whole brain
•spinal cord
- passes messages to and from brain
- connects nerves from brain to the peripheral nervous system
- responsible for reflex arc
(effectively an extension of the brain)
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5
Q

role of central nervous system

A

controls all complex demands and decisions

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6
Q

define the peripheral nervous system

A
  • connects CNS to organs, limbs and sensory receptors
  • transmit messages from the outside world to the CNS
  • transmit messages from the CNS to the effector cells
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7
Q

describe the two sections of the peripheral nervous systems

A

•somatic nervous system

  • transfers info from receptors to CNS
  • —> and CNS to effectors
  • controls muscle movement

•autonomic nervous system

  • important in homeostasis (vital involuntary processes)
  • transmits info from CNS to organs (and from organs to CNS) automatically
  • –> allows automatic responses and vital functions to occur
  • splits into asympathetic and sympathetic
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8
Q

describe the two sections of the autonomic nervous system

and examples of what occurs

A

•sympathetic

  • prepares the body for a fight or flight response during stressful events
    e. g. ——increases heart and breathing rate

•parasympathetic

  • restores body to normal resting state after stressful event
  • works as an antagonist to the sympathetic nervous system (opposite)
    e. g. ——-slows heart rate, resumes digestion
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9
Q

define a neuron

A

an specialised nerve cell that carries neural information around the body through electrical and chemical impulses

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10
Q

describe the route that each neurone takes

A

sensory- info from stimuli in receptor cells in PNS to the CNS

relay- connect sensory and motor neurons, or between other relay neurons, form part of reflex arc (mostly in brain and spinal cord)

motor- from the CNS to effector cells (muscles and glands)

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11
Q

outline the role of the different structures in a neuron

A

nucleus- control centre for activity and contains genetic material

cell body-

axon- carry impulse away from cell body across the neuron

dendrite- carries message from other neurones towards cell body

axon terminal- where axons communicate with other neurons across a synapse
- releases neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft

myelin sheath- insulates and protects axon, to speed up transmission

nodes of ranvier- small gaps in the myelin sheath that speed up transmission (as impulse must “jump”)

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12
Q

describe the structure of a sensory, relay and motor neuron

A

sensory: long dendrites . cell body . short axons

relay : short dendrites . cell body (majority of neuron) . short axons . (no myelin sheath)

motor: short dendrites . cell body . long axons

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13
Q

describe the stages of electrical transmission of neurons

A
  • when a neuron is at a resting state, the cell body is negatively charged
  • when the neuron is activated by a stimulus, the cell body becomes positively charged for a split second
  • causes action potential
  • which causes an electrical impulse to travels down axon towards end of neuron
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14
Q

define neurotransmitters

2 features

A

chemicals which diffuses across synapses to relay impulses to the next neuron

  • every NT has its own specific structure and so fits into specific receptor sites like a lock and key
  • either have an excitatory effect or inhibitory effect on neighbouring neurons
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15
Q

define a synapse

A

extremely small gap between neurons that allow them to communicate through chemical impulses

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16
Q

define synaptic transmission

A

how neurons communicate with other neurons and the rest of the body

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17
Q

describe the process of synaptic transmission of neurons

A
  • occurs through release of neurotransmitters into the synapse
  • electrical impulse is converted to a chemical impulse (neurotransmitters)
  • neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal, diffuse into the synaptic cleft and absorbed by post synaptic receptor sites in the dendrites of the next neurone
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18
Q

describe the excitatory effect a neurotransmitter can have on a neuron

example

A
  • increases the neuron’s positive charge and makes it more likely to fire
  • e.g adrenaline makes the neuron and more positively charged and more likely to fire
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19
Q

describe the inhibitory effect a neurotransmitter can have on a neuron

example

A
  • increases the neuron’s negative charge and makes it less likely to fire
  • e.g serotonin makes the more neuron negatively charged and less likely to fire
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20
Q

describe the idea of summation

A
  • post synaptic neurons can receive both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters simultaneously
  • these influences are summed and the net effect is what charge the post synaptic neuron will have

(if positive, action potential would be triggered and the electrical impulse would travel down the neuron’s dendrites)

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21
Q

define the role of the endocrine system

A
  • major information and communication system that regulates hormonal levels and instructs glands to secrete hormones into the blood stream, where they are carried to target organs
  • works on a feedback system: communicates amount needed to be produced
  • works in parallel to nervous system
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22
Q

define hormones

A

-biochemical substance that is secreted by glands that can affect any cell in the body with the specific receptor

  • disappear quickly
  • very powerful
  • can affect cells in many different organs
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23
Q

name all the glands (7) and describe their function/ function of their secreted hormone (4)

A

•pituitary

  • master gland
  • controls release of hormones from every endocrine gland

•thyroid

  • secretes thyroxine
  • —-> increases heart rate, metabolism and growth

•adrenal

  • secretes adernaline
  • —–>changes in cardiovascular system (e.g. increased heart rate, )

•hypothalamus

  • brain structure that controls and informs pituitary gland to which hormones are needed and when
  • links nervous system to endocrine system
  • testes
  • ovaries
  • parathyroid
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24
Q

where is the pituitary, adrenal and thyroid gland located

A

pituitary = base of brain

adrenal = on top of kidneys

thyroid = in front of trachea

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25
Q

differences between nervous system and endocrine

A
  • mode of transmission
    electrical (neurons), chemical (hormones)
  • speed of transmission
    endocrine longer
  • duration of effects
  • endocrine takes longer to have effect
  • what they effect
    (endocrine affects various glands in different parts, nervous sends signals to all cells in body)
26
Q

fight or flight response

A

the response of an animal when in a stressful experience

-endocrine and autonomic systems interact

27
Q

describe the stages of fight or flight

A
  • when a stressor is perceived, the hypothalamus is sent signals from higher brain centres and activates the pituitary gland
  • this triggers the sympathetic branch of the autonomous nervous system and the adrenal gland
  • the ANS changes from usual parasympathetic resting state to the physiologically aroused sympathetic state

•adrenal medulla (part of adrenal gland) is stimulated and adrenaline is secreted
- this triggers the physiological changes

28
Q

describe what occurs after the threat occurs, in a fight or flight response

A
  • the parasympathetic branch of the ANS “brakes” and reduces the activities that were increased by the sympathetic branch
  • this returns the body to its resting state
29
Q

describe the physiological changes in a fight or flight response

& less common examples

A

•immediate and automatic as soon as threat is detected

  • increased blood flow to muscles
  • inhibited saliva production
  • dilated pupils - can see better
  • inhibited digestion
  • contract rectum
30
Q

define localisation of function in the brain

A

idea that specific areas of the brain are responsible for certain tasks, behaviours or processes

  • if a certain part of the brain gets damaged then the associated area and the function of this area will also be affected
31
Q

what was the historic view of the brain

A
  • holistic theory that all parts of brain were responsible for all thoughts and actions
32
Q

describe the research that changed the view of the brain as holistic to localised

A

• Phineas Gage

  • metal pole was projected through his eye and through his frontal lobe and out his skull
  • survived, but friends said he now was more quick tempered and rude
  • his change in personality then led to suggestions that the frontal lobe is associated with mood regulation

• Broca
-responsible for speech production, and damage to this area causes Broca’s aphasia (laborious speech)

• Wernicke
-responsbile for speech comprehension, damage to this area causes Werncike’s aphasia (unmeaningful speech)

33
Q

describe language centres research

A

• Broca’s area

  • located in frontal lobe, in left hemisphere
  • responsible for speech production
  • damage to this area causes Broca’s aphasia: slow, laborious, unfluent speech
  • case study “Tan” - (he could only say Tan)

• Wernicke’s area

  • located in temporal lobe, in left hemisphere
  • responsbile for speech comprehension
  • damage to this area causes Werncike’s aphasia: fluent but meaningless speech, often add nonsense words
34
Q

describe the structure of the brain

A
  • cerebrum divided into two hemispheres
  • two hemispheres separated by corpus callosum (bundles of nerve fibres that allow communication between the two hemispheres)
  • most functions are lateralised (LH controls right side of body, RH controls left side of body)
  • 4 lobes
35
Q

4 lobes and their associated function

A

•the cortex is the outer layer of both hemisphere and its split into 4 lobes

==frontal lobe (top left of brain)
- decision making and mood regulation

==parietal lobe (top right of brain)
- processing sensory information

==temporal lobe (bottom of brain)
- auditory info

==occipital lobe (back of brain)
- visual info

36
Q

describe the 4 parts of the cortex

A

•motor cortex (1) - frontal lobe

  • controls voluntary movement in opposite side of body
  • damage leads to loss of fine motor skills

•somatosensory cortex (2) - parietal lobe

  • processes sensory information and is represented in the brain
  • the amount of somatosensory area devoted to a body part denotes its sensitivity

•auditory centres (2) - temporal lobe

  • analyse speech based information
  • damage may lead to hearing loss, damage to wernickes lead to speech comprehension damage.

•visual centres (2) - occipital lobe

  • received and processes visual information
  • RVF to LH
  • LVF to RH
  • therefore damage to LH can produce blindness of the RVF in both eyes
37
Q

define lateralisation of function in the brain

A
  • the idea that the two hemispheres of the brain have different functionalities
  • some behaviours and processes are controlled by one specific hemisphere
38
Q

example of laterisaltion o function in the bran

A
  • language centres
  • Broca’s and Wernicke’s area in the left hemisphere
  • RH provides the context to what is being said (synthesiser)
  • LH can produce and comprehend the speech (analyser)
39
Q

Examples of unlateralised functions in the brain

small detail

A

•motor areas
-contralateral (RH controls movement on left side of body)

•visual centres

  • contralateral and ipsilateral
  • (left hemisphere receives info from left eye (contra) and right eye (ipsi)
40
Q

describe the contralateral processing of visual information

A

contralateral (cross-wired) and ipsilateral (same sided)

  • each eye receives information from the LVF and RVF
  • LVF of both eyes is connected to RH
  • left hemisphere receives RVF (from right eye) and bit of RVF (from left eye)
41
Q

generally describe split brain research

A

studies on people who have had severe epilepsy and had their corpus callosum severed to try and control it, to investigate lateralisation of function

  • the severing meant the hemisphere could not communicate between one another, allowing researchers to see the function of individual hemispheres
42
Q

describe method of Sperry’s split brain research

A
  • told 11 P’s, with epilepsy history and cut corpus callosum, to stare at dot in centre of screen
  • flashed up an image for a split second on the left and right side, with other eye blindfolded
  • asked them to say what they saw
43
Q

findings of Sperry’s research + conclusion

A
  • if word flashed up on RVF, LH would process it and be able to say it
  • if word flashed up on LVF, RH would process it but not be able to say it, so would think nothing was shown
  • however, they could draw it if pen is in left hand as motor skills are contralateral
  • also, they could select the exact or a similar object, out of sight, using their left hand

CONCLUSION

  • show how certain functions (language) can be lateralalised
  • support LH as verbal and RH as ‘silent’ but emotional
44
Q

define plasticity

A

the brain’s tendency to change and adapt (functionally and physically) as a result of learning or experience

45
Q

define synaptic connection

A

the communication and relay of info of two neurons across a synapse

46
Q

define synaptic pruning

A

synaptic connections that aren’t often used are deleted and those connections frequently used are strengthened

47
Q

describe plasticity in more detail

A
  • during infancy, no. of synaptic connections grow rapidly
  • Gopnick said that it peaks at 2-3 years old with 15,000 connections per neuron
  • synaptic pruning deletes unused and strengthens used connections
  • reduces no. of connections in adults but allows lifelong plasticity (shows new connections can be formed)
48
Q

describe research into plasticity

A

+++ • london cab drivers (Maguire)

  • brain scan found more grey matter in posterior hippocampus than control
  • area associated with navigation and spatial skills
  • also found longer in the job the more structural difference

• medical students (Draganski)

  • scanned 3 months before and 3 months after final exam
  • found changes in posterior hippocampus in all, must be due to learning

• billingual people (Mechelli)
- found bilinguals have larger parietal cortex than control

49
Q

define functional recovery

A

when undamaged areas of brain adapt and compensate for the function of damaged areas.

  • damage through trauma or illness
  • form of plasticity
50
Q

define spontaneous recovery

A

when there is quick recovery shortly after the trauma but this recovery slows down several weeks or months after

  • means rehabilitation is required to recover further
51
Q

describe the brain processes during functional recovery

A
  • brain rewires and forms new synaptic connections near to damaged area
  • secondary neural pathways, not typically used for that function, are ‘unmasked’ and activated to allow function to continue (Doidge)
52
Q

structural changes in brain that support unmasking/activation of secondary neural pathways

A
  • axonal sprouting - new nerve endings grow and connect to other undamaged nerve cells to form new neural pathways around damaged areas
  • reformation of blood vessels - blood vessels reform to ensure brain functions on damaged areas
  • recruitment of homologous areas - similar areas in opposite hemisphere carry out the function of the damaged area
  • denervation supersensitivity - axons that do similar jobs to the damaged area become more aroused to compensate for lost function
53
Q

ways of studying the brain

A
  • functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
  • event related potentials (ERP)
  • electroencephalogram (EEG)
  • post mortem examination (PME)
54
Q

describe functional magnetic resonance imaging

fMRI

A

• measures change in blood oxygenation that results from brain activity

  • more active parts of brain consume/require more oxygen
  • in response, more blood flows to these areas (haemodynamic response)
  • detects radio waves from changing magnetic fields that show where rich oxygen areas are
  • produces 3D images that show which parts of the brain are involved in particular processes/behaviours
55
Q

describe electroencephalogram

EEG

A

• measures brain wave patterns made by millions of neurons, through fixed electrodes on a skull cap

  • the scan gives overall account for electrical activity in brain during general activities (e.g. sleeping, sitting)
  • useful for identifying unusual arrhythmic patterns, and whether they link to neurological abnormalities (e.g. epilepsy, tumours & sleep disorders)
56
Q

describe event related potentials

ERP

A

• researchers isolate neural responses of brain to sensory, cognitive or motor events through statical analysis of EEG data

  • focus on one event related potential (types of brain waves triggered by individual events)
  • using statistics, researchers can identify an average response to what they are investigating (e.g. a stimulus or task being performed)
  • use average from hundreds of scans as ERPs are difficult to separate from the background EEG data
57
Q

describe post mortem examination

PME

A

•analysing a person’s brain following their death

  • can look at tissue level under a microscope
  • usually compare brains with rare disorders & unusual cognitive processes to neurotypical brains (can see whether certain disorders are linked to structural abnormalities or damage)
58
Q

strengths and weaknesses of fMRI

A

••• strengths

  • high spatial resolution (pinpoint localisation down to mm’s)
  • doesn’t rely on radiation
  • uninvasive

••• weaknesses

  • don’t understand what neurons are doing, just blood flow
  • poor temporal resolution (5 second time lag)
  • very expensive equipment
59
Q

strengths and weaknesses of EEG

A

••• strengths

  • useful in diagnosing epilepsy (random bursts of electrical activity can be detected) and sleeping conditions
  • very high temporal resolution (can measure changes in real time-1 millisecond)

••• weaknesses

  • low spatial resolution (hard to determine where each electrical activity in different but adjacent locations, originated)
  • generalised information received (receive info from thousands of neurons)
60
Q

strengths and weaknesses of ERP

A

••• strengths
- much more specific data on individual neural processes than the raw EEG data
- high temporal resolution, as come from EEG
useful for measuring cognitive function during specific tasks (e.g. helped identify aspects of WWM)

••• weaknesses

  • not always possible to remove all extraneous variables and “background noise”, so data may not be pure and valid
  • lack of standardisation- different researchers use different methodology to generate event related potentials
61
Q

strengths and weaknesses of PME

A

••• strengths

  • very high spatial resolution
  • historically led to breakthroughs for Broca and Wernicke, & HM
  • useful for examining brains with rare disorders and seeing if they correlate to structural abnormalities or damage

••• weaknesses

  • very invasive so rely on donated brains
  • can’t link certain areas to behaviours or mental processes (no temporal resolution)
  • cant tell if observed damage is be linked to disorders or in fact trauma/decay

Psychology (33 decks)

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