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AP Psych Exam Review > Unit 4 > Flashcards

Unit 4 Flashcards

1
Q

learning

A

The process of acquiring through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviours.

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2
Q

habituation

A

Habituation is a decrease in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus.

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3
Q

sensitization

A

Sensitization is an increase in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus.

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4
Q

associative learning

A

Associative learning is defined as a form of learning where a subject links certain events, behavior, or stimuli together in the process of conditioning. This form of learning takes two main forms: classical conditioning operant conditioning

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5
Q

classical conditioning

A

In classical conditioning, we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events.

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6
Q

stimulus

A

A stimulus is any event or situation that evokes a response.

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7
Q

respondent behavior

A

This is behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

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8
Q

operant conditioning

A

In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response (our behaviour) and its consequence (good or bad)

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9
Q

cognitive learning

A

Cognitive learning can be defined as the learning processes where individuals acquire and process information.

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10
Q

observational learning

A

One important way in which cognitive learning works is through observation. Observational learning lets us learn from others’ experiences.

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11
Q

unconditioned stimulus UCS

A

A stimulus that innately (naturally) creates a response.

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12
Q

unconditioned response UCR

A

A natural, unlearned response, to an innate, natural stimulus.

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13
Q

neutral stimulus NS

A

A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that at first elicits no response.

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14
Q

conditioned stimulus CS

A

A conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.

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15
Q

conditioned response CR

A

A response is created by a stimulus due to learning.

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16
Q

acquisition

A

Acquisition is the initial state of learning when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.

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17
Q

extinction

A

Extinction is the diminished response that occurs when the conditioned stimulus no longer signals an impending unconditioned stimulus.

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18
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a pause.

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19
Q

generalization

A

Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

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20
Q

discrimination

A

Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the UCS) and other stimuli.

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21
Q

delayed conditioning

A

The onset of the CS precedes the UCS, but they overlap just a little. This is the best situation for conditioning, especially if the time delay between the CS and UCS is short.

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22
Q

trace conditioning

A

The CS precedes the UCS and they do not overlap. The longer time delay between the CS and UCS, the more difficult the conditioning is.

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23
Q

simultaneous Conditioning

A

The CS and UCS occur at the same time. Little or no conditioning takes place because the CS doesn’t predict the UCS at all in this situation.

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24
Q

backward conditioning

A

The CS follows the UCS. Little or no conditioning takes place, unless the response is biologically predisposed.

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25
Q

higher-order conditioning

A

Through higher-order conditioning (also known as second-order conditioning), a new NS can become a new CS without the presence of a UCS. All that’s required is for it to become associated with a previously conditioned stimulus.

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26
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a Russian physiologist known primarily for his work in classical conditioning.

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27
Q

John B. Watson

A

John B. Watson was an American psychologist who popularized the scientific theory of behaviorism, establishing it as a psychological school.

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28
Q

operant conditioning

A

In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence.

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29
Q

law of effect

A

Edward Thorndike’s law that stated that behaviours followed by favourable consequences became more likely, and that behaviors that followed unfavourable consequences became less likely.

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30
Q

operant chamber (Skinner box)

A

The box has a bar or lever than an animal presses, or a key or disc that an animal pecks, to release a reward of food or water. It also has a device that records these responses. It was in this box that Skinner could cause animals to learn to associate particular behaviours with rewards through
the process of reinforcement.

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31
Q

shaping

A

Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers (rewards) guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

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32
Q

discriminative stimulus

A

A discriminative stimulus is any stimulus that provides an organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement.

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33
Q

reinforcement

A

Reinforcement is about increasing behavior. This can be done in two ways: By adding a rewarding stimulus or by removing an averse stimulus.

34
Q

positive reinforcement

A

Positive reinforcement is increasing behaviors by presenting rewarding stimuli. A rewarding stimulus is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

35
Q

negative reinforcement

A

Negative reinforcement is increasing behaviors by reducing or stopping aversive stimuli. An aversive stimulus is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

36
Q

primary reinforcer

A

An innately reinforcing stimulus, like one that satisfies a biological need.

37
Q

secondary (conditioned)
reinforcer

A

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer.

38
Q

delay of gratification

A

The act of resisting an impulse to take an immediately available reward in the hope of obtaining a more-valued reward in the future. The ability to delay gratification is essential to self-regulation, or self-control.

39
Q

continuous reinforcement schedule

A

A continuous reinforcement schedule is one where the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs. With continuous reinforcement, learning occurs rapidly, which makes it the best choice for mastering a behaviour. But extinction also occurs rapidly.

40
Q

partial reinforcement schedule

A

A partial reinforcement schedule is one where the desired response is reinforced only part of the time. This results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous
reinforcement.

41
Q

fixed-interval schedule

A

Fixed interval schedules reinforce the first response after a fixed period of time. Animals on this type of schedule tend to respond more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near.

42
Q

variable-interval schedule

A

Variable interval schedules reinforce the first response after varying time intervals. Animals on this type of schedule tend to persist with the behaviour until the unpredicted food reward finally comes.

43
Q

fixed-ratio schedule

A

Fixed ratio schedules reinforce behavior after a set number of responses. If an animal is reinforced only after 30 responses, they will have a high rate of responding to get the reward, pause briefly after the reward, then return to a high rate of responding.

44
Q

variable-ratio schedule

A

Variable ratio schedules provide reinforcers after a seemingly unpredictable number of responses. An animal might be rewarded after an average of 20 behaviors; however, that means that sometimes it is rewarded at 10 responses and other times after 30 responses.

45
Q

punishment

A

Punishment is about decreasing behavior. This can be done in two ways: By adding an aversive stimulus or by removing a rewarding stimulus.

46
Q

positive punishment

A

Positive punishment is decreasing behaviors by presenting aversive stimuli. An aversive stimulus is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, weakens the response.

47
Q

negative punishment

A

Negative punishment is decreasing behaviours by reducing or stopping rewarding stimuli. A rewarding stimulus is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, weakens the response.

48
Q

biofeedback

A

Biofeedback is a system of recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

49
Q

preparedness

A

This is a biological predisposition to learn associations that have survival value. For example, taste and nausea.

49
Q

preparedness

A

This is a biological predisposition to learn associations that have survival value. For example, taste and nausea.

50
Q

taste aversion

A

With taste aversion, the mind develops a resistance towards certain food. Eating certain types of food can cause a bad reaction. This is a form of classical condition when the body uses a natural instinct as a means of protection. This is also called a survival mechanism. It warns the body if a type of food is harmful.

51
Q

instinctive drift

A

The tendency of learned behaviour to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

52
Q

latent learning

A

Learning occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

53
Q

cognitive map

A

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

54
Q

insight learning

A

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution. This contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

55
Q

intrinsic motivation

A

A desire to perform a behaviour effectively for its own sake.

56
Q

extrinsic motivation

A

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or to avoid threatened punishment.

57
Q

overjustification effect

A

A paradoxical effect in which rewarding performance can lead to lower, rather than higher, interest in the activity. It occurs when the introduction of an extrinsic reward weakens the strong intrinsic motivation that was the key to the person’s original high performance.

58
Q

problem-focussed coping

A

Attempting to alleviate stress directly - by changing the stressor or by changing the way we interact with that stressor.

59
Q

emotion-focussed coping

A

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and instead attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction.

60
Q

personal control

A

Our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless.

61
Q

learned helplessness

A

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

62
Q

external locus of control

A

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

63
Q

internal locus of control

A

The perception that we control our own fate.

64
Q

self-control

A

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

65
Q

John Garcia

A

An American psychologist, most known for his research on taste aversion.

66
Q

Robert Rescorla

A

Robert Rescorla was an American psychologist who specialized in the involvement of cognitive processes in classical conditioning focusing on animal learning and behaviour.

67
Q

Edward Tolman

A

Tolman was an American psychologist best-known for his work on cognitive behaviorism, cognitive maps, and the theory of latent learning. Tolman’s work challenged the behaviorist notion that all behaviour and learning is a result of the basic stimulus-response pattern.

68
Q

Wolfgang Köhler

A

Wolfgang Kohler was a German psychologist who co-created gestalt psychology and was the first to note insight learning.

69
Q

Martin Seligman

A

Martin Seligman is an American psychologist known for his theories of positive psychology and of well-being. He is also known for his theory of learned helplessness.

70
Q

Julian Rotter

A

Julian B. Rotter was an American psychologist known for developing social learning theory and for his research into locus of control.

71
Q

observational learning

A

Learning by observing others. Also called social learning.

72
Q

modelling

A

The process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour.

73
Q

vicarious learning

A

Learning that allows individuals to learn from the experience of others. A conscious process that involves sensing, feeling, and empathizing with what people are doing. Rather than direct, hands-on instructions, vicarious learning is derived from indirect sources such as hearing and seeing.

74
Q

vicarious reinforcement

A

The process whereby a person becomes more likely to engage in a particular behaviour by observing another individual being reinforced for that behaviour.

75
Q

vicarious punishment

A

The process whereby a person becomes less likely to engage in a particular behaviour by observing another individual being punished for that behaviour.

76
Q

four elements of
observational learning

A

Attention Recall Reproduction Motivation

77
Q

mirror neurons

A

A type of cell in the brains of certain animals (including humans) that responds in the same way to a given action whether the animal performs the action itself or sees another animal perform the action. The brain’s
mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

78
Q

prosocial behaviour

A

This is positive, constructive, or helpful behaviour.

79
Q

antisocial behaviour

A

This is negative, destructive, or harmful behaviour.

80
Q

violence-viewing effect

A

The violence-viewing effect can occur when an individual views a media violent act as not being punished, the pain of the victim not being shown, or the violent act being portrayed as justified, or the individual committing
the violence is physically attractive. The results of the violence-viewing effect can lead to individuals imitating the behavior of the violent character or developing desensitization to media violence.

AP Psych Exam Review (4 decks)

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