Research methods Flashcards
Question context
Briefly outline quantitative and qualitative research.
Week/Topic
Quantitative gives numerical data, qualitative gives non-numeric data.
Briefly outline the study by Johnson & Tudor (1939) into stuttering.
They demonstrated that stuttering could be induced by persistently drawing attention to minor imperfections in a child’s speech.
- 22 orphans
- Half given positive speech therapy
- Half had attention drawn to every slight speech imperfection
8/11 of those who had attention drawn to speech imperfections developed a stutter.
Define inductive and deductive.
Inductive:
- the inference of general laws from particular instances.
Deductive:
- characterised by/based on the inference of particular instances from a general law.
Explain triangulation in the principle of commitment and vigour.
- Combining of methods of data collection
- analysis to gain a multi-layered understanding of the research topic.
(Combination of observations, questionnaire responses and participant comments)
Give 3 general design principles for surveys.
Keep it short
Make sure its readable
Provide appropriate response options.
Give examples of unobtrusive methods of data collection.
Archival documents
Simple observation
Audio
Self-report
Give examples of what surveys are used to gather data on. (6 listed)
Attitudes
Behaviours
Opinions
Motivations
Emotions
Satisfaction
Give some examples of different formats of rating scale. (7 listed)
Dichotomous
Multichotomous
Likert scale
Graphic rating scale
Non-verbal scale
Ranking scale
Semantic differential scale
How are design decisions made for research and what are the uses of quantitative and qualitative decisions?
They are led by research questions and current knowledge of a research topic.
QUANT:
- used for validating existing knowledge and assumptions.
QUAL:
- used for exploratory insights
How can a good interviewer facilitate good interviews?
Create a safe environment.
Address ethical issues: consent, confidentiality, post-interview support.
Care for the interviewees wellbeing
Be flexible and self-aware.
Be aware of non-verbal communication.
Use language effectively
How does transferability relate to the principle of impact and importance?
- degree to which the results of the qualitative research can be transferred to other contexts or settings with other
- ‘user’ of the research decides whether the findings are transferrable to their research problem.
How much risk is allowed in studies and what is the researcher responsible for?
Normally, risk must be no greater than in ordinary life.
Responsibility to:
- identify potential risks
- develop protocols for risk management
- inform participants of any risks
In what situations is giving advice ethical?
- It forms an intrinsic part of the study
- It has been agreed with the participant in advance
- It has been subject to ethics review in advance
Is this question qualitative or quantitative? Why?
- Do smaller class sizes increase sense of belonging?
Quantitative:
- Quantifiable and is a question about causality.
Is this question qualitative or quantitative? Why?
- How do students make sense of community within a large university setting?
Qualitative:
- It’s exploratory, identifies a specific context, a specific group and is focused on understanding.
Name some conditions that impair an individuals ability to give consent. (6 listed)
dementia
mental illness
learning disability
brain damage
intoxication
any other condition causing confusion, drowsiness or loss of consciousness
Name the different types of data analysis.
Thematic analysis
Interprative phenomological analysis
Grounded theory
Conversation analysis
Content analysis
Name the different ways of data collection.
Interviews
Naturally recorded talk
Observation
Images.
Name the two main ethical codes.
World health organisation (Declaration of Helsinki)
- guide for conducting medical research with human subjects.
British Psychological Society
- guides for carrying out psychological research.
Outline 5 ways to maximise response rates in surveys.
Keeping them short
Keeping them simple and clear
Including a pre-paid envelope with postal surveys
Sending a remidner
Offering an incentive.
Outline commitment and rigour as one of Yardley’s principles.
It is the completeness of data collection, samples should be purposive - collect enough data to address the question.
- aim for data saturation, the point at which no new ideas are drawn from the data.
Outline confidentiality.
- Information provided by particpants in research should not be divulged to any outside source (anonymity)
- identifying information kept confidential unless participants agree in advance.
Outline deception in relation to ethics and what the two types of deception are.
Participants have the right not to be deceived unnecessarily - only if it is just in regards to dealing with reactivity.
Deception by comission (actively misleading)
Deception by omission (failing to disclose all the information)
Outline non-participation in relation to consent
Participants should be advised at the outset that they have the right to refuse to participate or to withdraw from the study.
- at any time
- without giving a reason
- without prejudice
Outline sensitivity to context as one of Yardley’s principles.
It is the awareness of a broader context that the research is conducted in.
- the relevant literature
- ‘common sense’ concepts and assumptions
- socio-cultural setting
Outline some complex ways of transcript analysis.
Prosody (phonetic aspects of spoken language e.g., the stressing and intonation of words)
Paralinguistics (non-phonemic aspects of language e.g., how they speak - stressed tone, relaxed tone).
Extralinguistic (non-linguistic aspects e.g., gesture)
Outline some guidelines for using closed questions.
More useful in explanatory or predictive work.
Ensure that the questions are unambiguous and the reponse options are clear.
Carefully consider the style of response options.
Outline some guidelines on using open questions.
More useful for descriptive, exploratory work.
Use if its justified and make sure to ensure the focus is clear.
Decide on the analysis strategy from the outset.
Outline some key considerations in the order of surveys.
Dividing the survey into sections
Start with easy and engaging questions
Use funnelling/branching questions if appropriate.
Outline some points of consideration of respect as a principle in the BPS ethics guidelines. (3 items)
Privacy and confidentiality
Issues of power
Consent
Outline structured interviews.
Interviewer uses same questions, in the same order, and the same setting.
There may be suggested response options (answers can be coded and quantified for statistical analysis)
Interviewee has a passive role.
Outline survey research as a data collection tool.
Presented as questionnaires or interviews and can generate either quantitative or qualitative data - or a mix of both.
Used to operationalise constructs.
Outline the aim and use of qualitative research questions.
Phrased to emphasise experiences, understanding, meaning, exploration and on the perspectives of an individual or group in a specific context.
Phrased to avoid quantification, assumptions about causality, reduction of complexity, generalisable.
Outline the continuum of interviews from interviewer led to interviewee led (4 types).
From interviewer led to interviewee led:
Structured, semi-structured, unstructured, focus groups.
Outline the principle ‘maximising benefit and minimising harm’ as a principal of the BPS code of human research ethics.
- Psychologists consider all research from standpoint of the research participants
- aim to avoid potential risks to psychological well-being, mental health, personal values, or dignity
Outline the principle ‘respect for the autonomy and dignity of persons’ as a principal of the BPS code of human research ethics.
value dignity and worth of all persons equally
- sensitivity to the dynamics of perceived authority or influence over others
- people’s rights including those of privacy and self-determination.
Outline the principle ‘scientific value’ as a principal of the BPS code of human research ethics.
- Research designed, reviewed and conducted to ensure quality and contribution to the development of knowledge and understanding.
- Poorly designed or conducted reserach wastes resources and devalues the contribution of the participants
- Can lead to misleading information being propogated which can cause harm
Outline the principle ‘social responsibility’ as a principal of the BPS code of human research ethics.
psychology exists within the context of human society.
- collective duty for the welfare of human and non-human beings,
Outline the principle of competence as one of the BPS ethics guidelines.
- continuous development and maintenance of high standards of competence
- importance of working within the recognised limits of their knowledge, skill, training, education and experience.
Outline the principle of integrity as a BPS ethics guideline.
- honesty, probity, accuracy, clarity and fairness in their interactions
- seek to promote integrity in all facets of their scientific and professional endeavours
Outline the principle of respect as one of the BPS ethics guidelines.
- Psychologists value the dignity and worth of all persons,
- sensitivity to the dynamics of perceived authority or influence over persons
Outline the principle of responsibility as one of the BPS ethics guidelines.
- Psychologists value their responsibilities to persons and peoples, to the general public, and to the profession a
- Avoidance of harm and the prevention of misuse or abuse of their contribution to society.
What is the priority sequence model useful for?
- guiding decisions about research design
- You use the data in a sequential order so that the results from one method are available to contribute to the other method
- For mixed methods reserach
Outline the pros and cons of semi-structured interviews.
+ :
- Flexibility generates richer detail and allows deeper understanding of the interviewees experiences.
- Captures complexities and inconsistencies whilst keeping the ability of standardisation.
- Useful for exploring sensitive topics.
- :
- Non-natural conversation.
Outline the pros and cons of using closed questions.
Pros:
- Quick to complete
- Easy to analyse (objective)
- Standardised responses.
Cons:
- Can impose assumptions
- Over simplify complex issues.
Outline the use of focus groups as a qualitative research method.
- moderator has a topic guide
- participants interact with each other, as well as the moderator so can challenge/extend/develop statements.
- requires a very skilled moderator as the groups can be homogenous or heterogenous.
What are interviews designed to do, and what do they aim to do as a qualitative research method?
- designed to tap lived experience, particularly in the semi-structured format,
- aim to get a participant to talk about their experiences, beliefs and perspectives on a topic determined by a researcher.
Outline the use of semi-structured interviews as a qualitative research method.
- The interviewer uses the schedule flexibly, following up on interviewee responses and adapting the order of questions to fit the ideas introduced by the interviewee.
- questions are mostly open ended but can used closed questions too and it is
- important to build rapport at the start of the interview.
Outline the use of unstructured interviews as a qualitative research method.
- interviewer has a topic guide but allows the interviewee to lead the interview.
- interviewer acknowledges they do not know in advance all the issues or relevant questions, instead developing and adapting the questions and following up on answers appropriate to the situation.
Outline what should be included in a consent form.
(8 listed)
Informed Consent, psychologists inform participants about
(1) the purpose of the research, expected duration and procedures;
(2) their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once participation has begun;
(3) the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing;
(4) reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort or adverse effects;
(5) any prospective research benefits;
(6) limits of confidentiality;
(7) incentives for participation; and
(8) whom to contact for questions about the research and research participants’ rights
Outline withdrawal in relation to consent.
Participants have the right to withdraw their data retrospectively.
- Notify them of any time restrictions to this right.
What are 1st order and 2nd order coding?
1st order:
- describes an idea/feature of the data in the researcher’s own words.
- often called descriptive or semantic
2nd order:
- captures the underlying meaning of an idea/feature of the data.
- often called abstract, latent or interpretative
What are 3 criteria for quality quantitative research?
That the research is:
- Reliable
- Has internal validity
- Has external validity
These all aim to limit bias
What are 4 steps to constructing an interview schedule?
- Identify topics and questions that are relevant to the research question
- Phrase questions in a way that encourage the interviewee to describe their experience in detail
- Use a logical order
- Consider how to build a rapport and help the interviewee to feel comfortable.
What are ethics/what do they involve?
systematising, defending and providing of standards by which behaviour can be judged to be right or wrong from
What are psychometric tests?
Standardised tests/questionnaires that are designed to measure particular trait or ability.
What are rating scales and why are they useful?
Questions that ask people to provide ‘how much’ judgements - particularly useful for measuring attitudes.
What are some common problems within the principle of commitment and rigour as set out by Yardley.
Themes are unrelated, overlap, vague and are not consistent with data examples
Alternatives are unconsidered (e.g., alternative interpretations of the data).
What are some considerations in the principle of integrity as a BPS ethics guideline?
Honesty, fairness and openness.
Accurate unbiased representation.
Maintaining personal and professional boundaries.
What are some considerations in the principle of responsibility as a BPS ethics guideline.
Professional accountability
Responsible use of their knowledge and skills.
Potentially competing duties.
What are some considerations of likert scales?
Response acquiescence
Potential introduction of double negatives
Should there be a neutral response option?
Verbal responses for all steps or only for anchors?
What are some ethical standards for the principle of ‘maximising benefit and minimising harm’ as stated by the BPS code of human research ethics?
Assessing and identifying risk
Put in place measures to minimise or manage risks.
What are some ethical standards for the principle of ‘Respect for the autonomy and dignity of persons’ as stated by the BPS code of human research ethics?
Inform participants of nature of the research
Avoid discriminatory practices
Ensure privacy
What are some ethical standards for the principle of ‘scientific value’ as stated by the BPS code of human research ethics?
The researcher must have accountability for research quality
What are some ethical standards for the principle of ‘social responsibility’ as stated by the BPS code of human research ethics?
There should be a purpose for the research
Awareness of outcomes (predicted and unexpected)
Acknowledgement of the limitations of the study
What are some key guidelines to follow to make an interview effective?
Start by building rapport
Have a logical order (moving from general to specific)
Use mostly open questions
Save questions on sensitive topics for later in the interview.
Use language that is accessible, clear and easy to understand.
