Unit 3 AoS 2

Question 1

Classical conditioning

Answer 1

A learning process that results in the involuntary association between two stimuli

Question 2

Operant conditioning

Answer 2

A learning process that results in the association between a behaviour and its consequences

Question 3

Classical conditioning order

Answer 3

NS comes before UCS immediately

Question 4

Operant conditioning order

Answer 4

Consequence comes after behaviour as close in time as possible

Question 5

Involuntary response and passive learner

Answer 5

Classical conditioning (UCR)

Question 6

Voluntary response and active learner

Answer 6

Operant conditioning (behaviour) and observational learning

Question 7

Conditioning

Answer 7

A type of learning that is based on forming an association

Question 8

Fieldwork

Answer 8

Based on inquiry or the investigation of an issue, it involves observing and interacting with a selected environment beyond the classroom, usually to determine correlation, rather than a causal relationship

Question 9

Ethical concepts

Answer 9

A set of underlying principles that are required to be considered when research is being developed

Question 10

Ethical guidelines

Answer 10

Regulations that need to be worked into the experimental process where humans are involved. There is a separate set of these for use with research done on animals

Question 11

The commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, and the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding

Answer 11

Integrity (concept)

Question 12

Involves consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and / or instrumental value, giving due regard to the welfare, liberty, autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of both the individual and the collective. It involves consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions, and when living things have diminished capacity to make their own decisions, ensuring that they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary

Answer 12

Respect (concept)

Question 13

The commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action

Answer 13

Beneficence (concept)

Question 14

The moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action, and
that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action without discrimination based on factors of an individual’s circumstances

Answer 14

Justice (concept)

Question 15

Avoiding the causations of harm; however, as a position or course of action may involve some degree of harm, this concept implies that the harm resulting from any position or course of action should not be disproportionate to the benefits from any position or course of action

Answer 15

Non-maleficence (concept)

Question 16

The privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity of individual results, including the removal of identifying elements

Answer 16

Confidentiality (guideline)

Question 17

Ensures that at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions. Any participant questions are addressed, and support is also provided to ensure there is no lasting harm from their involvement in the study. It is essential for all studies that involve deception

Answer 17

Debriefing (guideline)

Question 18

Ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks (both physical and psychological), before agreeing to participate in the study. This should be obtained by the experimenter and if participants are unable to give this, then a parent or legal guardian should provide it

Answer 18

Informed consent (guideline)

Question 19

Is only permissible if participants’ knowledge of the true purpose of the experiment may possibly affect their behaviour while participating, and therefore, the validity of the experiment. The use of it is discouraged in psychological research and used only when necessary

Answer 19

Deception (guideline)

Question 20

Ensures that there is no coercion of, or pressure put on, the participant to partake in an experiment, and they choose freely to be involved

Answer 20

Voluntary participation (guideline)

Question 21

Involves a participant being able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during, or after, the conclusion of an experiment, without penalty. This may include the removal of the participant’s results from the study after the study has been completed

Answer 21

Withdrawal rights (guideline)

Question 22

Behaviourism

Answer 22

An approach to psychology based on the idea that all behaviours are acquired through interaction with the environment

Question 23

Types of fieldwork

Answer 23

Qualitative and / or quantitative observations and sampling, participant observation, qualitative interviews, questionnaires, focus groups and yarning circles

Question 24

Social cognitive theory states

Answer 24

That our actions are shaped by our social context

Question 25

Elements of the social cognitive theory

Answer 25

Observing the behaviour of others (social) and
evaluating the nature of the consequences they experience (cognitive).
and goal directed behaviour (active learner).

Question 26

Observational learning

Answer 26

Starts with finding a model based on whether they are perceived as positive, similar, familiar, possible to imitate and has ‘stand out’ behaviour. Then we decide whether or not to imitate their behaviour based on whether they were rewarded or punished by their behaviour.

Question 27

Observational learning stages

Answer 27

Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and reinforcement

Question 28

Attention (observational learning)

Answer 28

Requires the learner to focus their awareness on the model and their behaviour.

Question 29

Retention (observational learning)

Answer 29

The learner must be able to hold a mental representation of the behaviour they saw until they are ready to replicate it. The simpler the behaviour the easier to retain.

Question 30

Reproduction (observational learning)

Answer 30

The learner must have the mental and physical capabilities to replicate the behaviour when they are ready (they do not actually replicate the behaviour in this stage).

Question 31

Motivation (observational learning)

Answer 31

The learner must have the desire to perform the behaviour at that particular point in time.

Question 32

Reinforcement (observational learning)

Answer 32

If the learner receives a desired outcome after performing the behaviour they are more likely to do it again.

Question 33

Situated learning

Answer 33

Situated learning theory proposes that people learn through participation in a particular community. This community will contain experts who interact with the learner while they are all involved in the activities and practices of the community. In this way, the learner unintentionally becomes an expert simply through their participation and becoming more involved in the community. Their motivation isn’t to learn, but to belong.

Question 34

Story sharing (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

Answer 34

Story sharing is approaching learning through narrative. This brings facts to life and helps create personal connections and relevance to what is being learned.

Question 35

Learning maps (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

Answer 35

Learning maps are for explicitly planning and visualising processes. This helps a learner to see where they are on their learning journey, how far they have come and where they need to go next, and it can be linked to a physical land journey.

Question 36

Non-verbal (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

Answer 36

Non-verbal applies intrapersonal (within the mind) and kinaesthetic skills to thinking and learning and includes self-reflective, hands-on methods. This removes the emphasis on learning through speaking and listening, allowing the other senses and experiences to reveal wisdom to the learner, especially as it caters for learning through reflection and contemplation.

Question 37

Symbols and images (8 Aboriginal way of learning)

Answer 37

Symbols and images use visuals, symbols and metaphors to understand concepts and content. Symbols and images don’t require translating, and can communicate more to a learner than words can, sparking imagination and inspiration.

Question 38

Land links (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

Answer 38

Land links means learning through place-connected, environmental practices, linking content to local land and place. All plants, animals and land features can teach a learner something important, as well as act as useful metaphors for more abstract concepts.

Question 39

Non-linear (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

Answer 39

Non-linear means using indirect, innovative and interdisciplinary approaches and understanding by thinking laterally, or ‘outside the square’. This enables the learner to look at things from different perspectives that aren’t always straight-forward or step-by-step, but often circular or two-way.

Question 40

Deconstruct/reconstruct (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

Answer 40

Deconstruct / reconstruct is working from a whole to individual components through modelling and guidance. The learner first sees the object or concept as a whole, which is then broken down into its separate parts, and the learner is assisted to rebuild the original object or concept from those parts.

Question 41

Community links (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

Answer 41

Community links means connecting learning to local values, needs and knowledge, including local viewpoints, and applying learning for community benefit. The learner recognises that what happens in the community is only a smaller version of what happens in the world outside it, and that all learning should be seen as valuable to the community.

Question 42

What is considered when creating a method?

Answer 42

what content area they are focusing on
what they hope to find out (their aim)
which set-up will provide them with the most useful data
what they can realistically achieve.

Question 43

Convenience sampling

Answer 43

Convenience sampling is often used because it involves using the participants who are easiest to access. However, this sampling process almost always leads to a biased sample.

Question 44

Random sampling

Answer 44

Random sampling is a process of obtaining participants where every member of the target population has equal chance of being selected. As there can be no pattern or strategy used, there may be an uneven representation of some groups in the sample. However, a larger sample will often balance these out.

Question 45

Stratified sampling

Answer 45

Stratified sampling overcomes the issue of a disproportionate representation of groups in the sample by making sure the sample reflects the balance of those groups in the target population. This involves:
choosing certain characteristics (strata)
measuring them in the population
keeping the same proportion in the sample.

Question 46

Within-subjects design

Answer 46

within-subjects design is when the comparison between each condition occurs ‘within’ each individual subject / participant, such as experiencing the IV and not experiencing the IV. Using the same participant for each condition, allows a lot of variables to be controlled and therefore not influence the DV as well as the IV.

Question 47

Between-subjects design

Answer 47

Between-subjects design is where participants are allocated to one of two, or more, different groups. Each group then experiences either condition 1 or condition 2, etc.. The data comes from the differences between the groups sets of results. This is ideal for avoiding participants improving through practice. It is also good if there is only one opportunity to measure the results, such as a performance in a grand final. However it can lead to participant differences or other variables impacting the results.

Question 48

Mixed design

Answer 48

A mixed design incorporates both within-subjects design and between-subjects design elements by doing a baseline data collection for the two or more groups, then having one group experience condition 1, and another group experience condition 2, and so on. The results initially come from comparing each group’s second results with their baseline results. The difference between these two is compared with the groups that experienced the other conditions.

Question 49

Types of methodology

Answer 49

case study
classification and identification
controlled experiment
correlational study
fieldwork
literature review
modelling
product, process or system development
simulation

Question 50

The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory 3 memory stores

Answer 50

Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory

Question 51

The four stages that information goes through for a memory to be formed

Answer 51

Reception
encoding
storage
retrieval

Question 52

Reception

Answer 52

Obtaining the information starting in the sensory memory

Question 53

Encoding

Answer 53

Transforming sensory information into a useable format and giving it meaning

Question 54

Storage

Answer 54

Retaining encoded information in an organised manner in the long-term memory for when it’s needed

Question 55

Retrieval

Answer 55

Bringing a memory out of storage to use when needed

Question 56

Sensory memory

Answer 56

Sensory memory is the first store where information enters. We need to pay attention for the memory to move onto short-term memory. This stage helps to filter out unnecessary information.

Question 57

Sensory memory duration

Answer 57

0.3-4 seconds

Question 58

Sensory memory capacity

Answer 58

Limitless

Question 59

Sensory memory form

Answer 59

Raw

Question 60

Two sub-stores of sensory memory

Answer 60

Iconic and echoic

Question 61

Iconic memory

Answer 61

Storage for visual information

Question 62

Iconic memory duration

Answer 62

0.3 seconds just long enough for another to be received that will replace it

Question 63

Echoic memory

Answer 63

Storage for audio information

Question 64

Echoic memory duration

Answer 64

3-4 seconds longer than iconic memory, as the ordering of sounds impacts on their meaning, so we need to hold sound long enough to hear full words.

Question 65

Short-term memory

Answer 65

The second memory store after sensory memory where attended memories go for encoding and is designed to enable us to respond to information

Question 66

Short term memory duration

Answer 66

18-20 seconds approximately the length of the average sentence. After this time, information starts to decay unless it is actively attended to or rehearsed, as once the meaning is extracted from a sentence, the words themselves are no longer as important.

Question 67

Short-term memory capacity

Answer 67

7 (plus or minus 2) items so that we can hold multiple pieces of information simultaneously while problem solving. New information will push out or displace old information once capacity is reached, unless the old information is repeated to maintain it, which is known as maintenance rehearsal.

Question 68

How short-term memory moves onto the next store

Answer 68

Maintenance rehearsal (such as repeating it in our head) or elaborative rehearsal which involves doing something to add extra meaning to the memory. Elaborative rehearsal is more effective when encoding. Unrehearsed or displaced information is lost.

Question 69

Short-term memory form

Answer 69

Encoded

Question 70

Long-term memory

Answer 70

the third and final memory store containing encoded and rehearsed memories in a organised manner to allow us to retrieve memories when needed.

Question 71

Long-term memory duration

Answer 71

Limitless

Question 72

Long-term memory capacity

Answer 72

Limitless

Question 73

How long-term memories are lost

Answer 73

If they are never retrieved or are lost within the long-term memory store. If you try to retrieve a memory that is poorly encoded it is also lost.

Question 74

Long-term memory form

Answer 74

Encoded

Question 75

Two types of long term memories

Answer 75

Explicit and Implicit

Question 76

Explicit memory (declarative memory)

Answer 76

A memory we are consciously aware we have and can declare we have them. Can include semantic and episodic memories.

Question 77

Cerebral cortex

Answer 77

The cerebral cortex is the large, wrinkled part of the brain that we associate with the appearance of brain matter. It is part of the forebrain. The cerebral cortex is divided into the left and the right cerebral hemispheres. These are responsible for the higher-order thinking that sets humans and primates apart from other animals. It includes the hippocampus and amygdala.

Question 78

Neocortex

Answer 78

The neocortex is outer layer of the cerebral cortex (‘neo’ meaning ‘new’) as it is believed to be the most recently evolved part of the brain. It is where conscious thoughts and actions are governed, such as those associated with sensory perception, cognition and language.

Question 79

The role the neocortex plays for explicit LTMs

Answer 79

The neocortex doesn’t form explicit long-term memories itself, but it is where those memories are stored. Different elements of a memory will be stored in networks of neural connections spread throughout the neocortex, and these will be activated when that memory is recalled to conscious awareness.

Question 80

The role the hippocampus plays for explicit LTMs

Answer 80

Within the limbic brain is the hippocampus, the part of the brain responsible for the formation and organisation of explicit long-term memories. It enables these memories to be formed and stored, and even has a role in their retrieval (though actual storage takes place in the neocortex). The hippocampus has a particular role in connecting information from the senses to new memories.

Question 81

The role the amygdala plays for explicit LTMs

Answer 81

Connected to the hippocampus is the amygdala, which is a small structure involved in the processing of emotions. Consequently, it has a role in linking emotions to explicit memories, as it encodes the emotion and then activates the hippocampus to attach the emotional significance to the declarative memory. This helps explain why emotionally significant memories are so difficult to forget.

Question 82

Implicit memory

Answer 82

Implicit memories are those of which we are not consciously aware. When we find it difficult to put them into words in order to explain what it is that we know. As a result, the individual doesn’t have to intentionally retrieve the memory, but rather the existence of the memory is implied through an observable behaviour. This includes emotional memories (such as through classical conditioning) as well as those that are procedural (muscle memory and memories for processes).

Question 83

The role the amygdala plays for implicit LTMs

Answer 83

Attached to the hippocampus (in the midbrain), the amygdala is involved in implicit (as well as explicit) memory formation. As it has a role in processing and regulating of emotional reactions – especially fear and aggression – it is linked to sympathetic arousal which occurs in threatening situations. The process of conditioning a fear response relies on the amygdala to connect the fear-inducing stimulus (UCS) with the new, neutral stimulus (NS) to form the association. Similar to the hippocampus, the amygdala enables the formation and storage of emotional memories to occur (actual storage probably takes place in the basal ganglia and cerebellum).

Question 84

The role the basal ganglia plays for implicit LTMs

Answer 84

With their role in the formation of new habits and routines, the basal ganglia are essential for the development of new procedural memories, which are memories of processes and skills. The formation occurs through associating positive or negative outcomes with the sequences of actions, which is then reinforced by repetition. This is why repeating an action increases our skill level and why some habits are so hard to break.

Question 85

The role the cerebellum plays for implicit LTMs

Answer 85

The cerebellum, at the very base of the head in the hindbrain, is a brain structure involved in the coordination of fine motor control. It regulates and coordinates movement, posture and balance, as well as the cardiac and respiratory centres, which function without conscious effort. The cerebellum coordinates the movement and balance of the body to enable it to dance, while the basal ganglia enables the dance routine to occur in a fluid manner. The cerebellum also has a role in classical conditioning and the natural reflexive response that occurs between the UCS and UCR. It is essential for implicit learning of classically conditioned emotional responses when working in conjunction with the amygdala.

Question 86

How to present quantitative data

Answer 86

percentages
measures of central tendency/standard deviation

Question 87

The use of percentages

Answer 87

Percentages make the size of a result clearer. Different results become easier to compare when all the scores are out of 100. Percentage change is useful if comparing how much a participant’s result has changed from a baseline score. This not only converts the scores to an easy to understand and consistent format, but it also allows individual participant differences to be controlled for as any influencing characteristics impact both results.

Question 88

Measures of central tendency/standard deviation

Answer 88

graphs the mean, median and/or mode using a bell curve or normal distribution. A tall and skinny curve shows a low standard deviation and a short and fat curve shows a high standard deviation.

Question 89

Elements of a conclusion

Answer 89

evaluate data to determine the degree to which the evidence supports or refutes the initial prediction or hypothesis
use reasoning to construct scientific arguments, and to draw and justify conclusions consistent with evidence base and relevant to the question under investigation
identify, describe and explain the limitations of conclusions, including identification of further evidence required
discuss the implications of research findings and proposals, including appropriateness and application of data to different cultural groups and cultural biases in data and conclusions.

Question 90

Modelling

Answer 90

involves the construction and / or manipulation of either a physical model, such as a small- or large-scale representation of an object, or a conceptual model that represents a system involving concepts that help people know, understand or simulate the system.