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BIOM1051 > Module 6: Endocrinology > Flashcards

Module 6: Endocrinology Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 3 stages of cell signalling?

A
  1. Reception (Hormone and neurotransmitter is directly involved)
  2. Transduction
  3. Response
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2
Q

An example of Local signalling - Paracrine signalling

A

A secreting cell acts on nearby target cells by secreting molecules of a local regulator (a growth factor, for example)

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3
Q

An example of Local signalling - Synaptic signalling.

A

A nerve cell releases neurotransmitter molecules into a synapse, stimulating the target cell, such as a muscle or nerve cell.

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4
Q

An example of Long-distance signalling - Endocrine (hormonal) signalling

A

Specialised endocrine cells secrete hormones into body fluids, often blood. hormones reach virtually all body cells, but are bound only by some cells.

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5
Q

Types of Chemical Signalling

A
  1. Endocrine Signalling
  2. Synaptic Signalling
  3. Neuroendocrine Signaling
  4. Paracrine Signaling
  5. Autocrine Signaling
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6
Q

Endocrine Signalling is

A

Long-distance signalling and secretes hormones (e.g. thyroid)

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7
Q

Synaptic Signalling is

A

Local Signalling and secretes neurotransmitters

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8
Q

Neuroendocrine Signalling is

A

Long-distance signalling and secretes neurohormones (to diffuse across a synapse)

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9
Q

Paracrine Siganling is

A

Local signalling and secretes local regulators, response in neighbouring cells

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10
Q

Autocrine Signaling is

A

Local signalling and secretes local regulators, binds to the same cell, important for immune system

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11
Q

Autocrine Signaling is

A

Local signalling and secretes local regulators, bind to the same cell, important for the immune system

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12
Q

Regulation and Homeostasis: Animals manage their INTERNAL environment by

A

Regulating their internal environment despite external fluctuations,
Allowing internal condition to conform to the external environment

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13
Q

Regulation and Homeostasis: Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a “Steady-state” or internal balance

A

Independent of conditions in the external envrionment

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14
Q

What do endocrine hormones do in the body?

A
  1. Communication
  2. distribute into the bloodstream
  3. Messengers - tell the cells how to behave and act
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15
Q

Water-soluble hormones

A

Polypeptide - Insulin, Amine - Adrenaline

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16
Q

Lipid-soluble hormones

A

Steroids - Cortisol, Amine - Thyroxine

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17
Q

What is the similarity between water-soluble and Lipid-soluble hormones?

A

Both hormones are ductless gland (their secretions are released directly into the blood, not to any tubes or ducts)

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18
Q

What is the differences between Water-soluble and Lipid-soluble hormones?

A

A key difference is the location of the receptor proteins in target cells;
1. Water-soluble hormones secreted by exocytosis
2. Travel freely in the bloodstream
3. Cell-surface receptors such as G-protein coupled receptors or thyroxine link receptors
whereas Lipid-soluble hormones
1. are able to diffuse across the membrane
2. bind to transport proteins, which keeps them soluble in blood.
3. Does NOT need cell-surface receptors, but typically binds to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus

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19
Q

Thyroid hormones regulate:

A
  1. Homeostasis (e.g. body temperature)
  2. development
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20
Q

Adrenaline in Liver Cell

A

In the Liver cell, Adrenaline binds to a b-type receptor in the plasma membrane. This receptor activates the enzyme protein kinase A, which in turn regulates enzymes of glycogen metabolism, causing the release of glucose into the blood. (Signal transduction)

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21
Q

Adrenaline in Smooth muscle cell in wall of blood vessel that supplies the “skeletal muscle”

A

In the smooth muscle cells that line blood vessels supplying skeletal muscle, the same kinase activated by the same adrenaline receptor (b-type) The result is smooth muscle relaxation, leading to vasodilation and hence increased blood flow to skeletal muscles

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22
Q

Adrenaline in Smooth muscle cell in wall of blood vessel that supplies “intestines”

A

In the smooth muscle cells lining blood vessels of the intestines, adrenaline binds to an a-type receptor. Rather than activating protein kinase A, this receptor triggers a signalling pathway involving. -> Blood vessel constricts, decreasing flow to intestines

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23
Q

Homeostasis occurs via

A

negative feedback

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24
Q

Steps of homeostasis

A
  1. Stimulus (such as blood glucose drops, body temperature rise and Cholesterol drop etc)
  2. Endocrine gland - releases hormones
  3. Target Tissue - bind to some target tissues that are relevant to the stimulus that you had initially
  4. Response
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25
Q

Negative Feedback can

A

reduce stimulus

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26
Q

Positive Feedback can

A

Reinforces stimulus

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27
Q

Describes the steps of the hormone cascade pathway of the Negative feedback when you have a cold

A
  1. Stimulus - Cold (Body temperature rises)
  2. Sensory neuron and Hypothalamus is recognise the changes in body temperature; Hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) -> “Neuroendocrine signalling”
  3. TRH triggers anterior pituitary to secretes thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH or thyrotropin)
  4. it activates the Thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormone (T3 and T4 - both amine, lipid-soluble)
  5. T3 and T4 binds to target cells in the body
  6. Response - Increased cellular metabolism
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28
Q

What happens if there is enough T3 and T4?

A

Once our body has enough T3 and T4 in the bloodstream, some of the cells ALSO, bind to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to offer negative feedback to stop producing any more TRH and TSH -> restore homeostasis by the negative feedback loop

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29
Q

Describes the steps of the hormone cascade pathway of the Positive Feedback when a hungry baby suckling

A
  1. Stimulus - a hungry baby suckling
  2. Sensory neuron, hypothalamus/posterior pituitary called thyroid axis is recognised that; releases Oxytocin
  3. Oxytocin binds to target cells where smooth muscle in mammary glands
  4. Respond - Milk release
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30
Q

Describes the steps of Homeostasis occurs when Blood glucose level falls after skipping a meal

A
  1. Once it is recognised, ALPHA cells of the pancreas release glucagon into the blood (***Glucagon - polypeptide, water-soluble)
  2. Liver breaks down glycogen and releases glucose into the blood
  3. Blood glucose level rises up to about 90mg/100mL)
31
Q

Describes the steps of Homeostasis occurs when Blood glucose level falls after eating carbohydrate-rich meal

A
  1. Once it is recognised, BETA cells of the pancreas release insulin into the blood. (Insuline - water-soluble, polypeptide)
    2-1. Body cells take up more glucose 2-2. Liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen 2-3. The Liver increases expression of glucose transporters in the liver
  2. Blood glucose level declines to about 90mg/100mL
32
Q

the receptor of insulin

A

Thyroxine kinase receptor as it is polypeptide, water-soluble hormones

33
Q

the receptor of glucagon

A

GPCR as it is polypeptide, water-soluble hormones

34
Q

Type I diabetes is

A

insulin-dependent: an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells

35
Q

Type II diabetes is

A

NON0insulin-dependent: involves insulin deficiency or reduced response of target cells due to change in insulin receptors

36
Q

Describes Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)

A
  1. Stimulus - Blood pressure or blood volume drops due to dehydration or blood loss
  2. Once, Sensors in JGA (Juxtaglomerular apparatus) detect decreases in pressure or volume, JGA releases renin (enzyme) and Liver releases preprohormone Angiotensinogen
  3. Renin + Angiotensinogen convert to Angiotension I (inactive), then Angiotension I + ACE converts to Angiotensin II which is very active
  4. Angiotensin II then activates the Adrenal galnd to produce Aldosterone (hormone) to more Na+ and H2O are reabsorbed in distal tubules, increasing blood volume
    4-1. Angiotensin II can cause Arterioles constrict, increasing blood pressure.
37
Q

Posterior Pituitary releases

A

ADH (polypeptide) - target: Kidney tubules
Oxytocin (polypeptide) - Mammary glands, uterine muscle
근데 Posterior Pituitary 가 만드는게 아니라 hypothalamus 에서 생성된 게 axon 을 타고 내려와서 나오는 장소임!

38
Q

Anti Diuretic Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin

A
  1. Stimulus - Blood osmolarity increases after sweating
  2. Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus trigger release of ADH from posterior pituitary
    2-1. ADH in the Distal tubes and Collecting duct H2O reabsorption reduces blood osmolarity
    2-2. Hypothalamus generates thirst, drinking water reduces blood osmolarity
39
Q

Vasopressin (ADH)

A
  1. Once osmolarity is back towards homeostatic set point, negative feedback operates at the hypothalamic level reducing. asopressin production
  2. Otherside: Excess water consumption = reduced blood osmolarity = reduced casopression secretion and diuresis
40
Q

Diabetes Insipidus (요봉증: 비정상적으로 다량의 소변을 배설하는 병)

A
  1. Mutations that prevent ADH production or inactivate ADH receptor gene, cause Diabetes Insipidus
  2. mutations in aquaporin genes can also cause Diabetes Insipidus
    **Consequences: Severe dehydration, solute imbalances due to increased (dilute) urine volume
    **    NOT always associated with genetic changes - alcohol can also inhibit ADH release, excess urine and dehydration (“hangover”)
41
Q

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

A

((1)): Tropic effects only hormones
1. FSH and LH - Testes or ovaries (Target)
2. TSH - Thyroid
3. ACTH - Adrenal Cortex
((2)): Non-tropic effects Only hormones
1. Prolactin - Mammary glands
2. MSH - Melanocytes
((3)): BOTH Tropic and Non-tropic effects hormones
1. GH - Liver, bones, other tissues

42
Q

Receptors for nonsteroid hormones are located in

A

association with a cell’s plasma membrane

43
Q

Non-steroid hormones are

A

epinephrine and oxytocin

44
Q

How do non-steroid differ from steroid hormones?

A

Non-steroid hormones act via transduction pathways; steroid hormones do not act via signal transduction pathways

45
Q

a chemical signal

A
  1. chemicals released into the bloodstream from nerve cells
  2. an immune cell releasing a cytokine
  3. a chemical released that affects the cell that releases it
  4. movement of a signal from one nerve to the next
46
Q

If the adrenal cortex were removed, which group of hormones would be most affected?

A

steorid

47
Q

Describes the term of Regulatory homeostasis

A

is a steady state in which the internal conditions of an organism are kept within a narrow range without regard to the external conditions.

Regulatory homeostasis involves adjusting the internal conditions of an organism to stay within a narrow range without regard to the external conditions.

48
Q

the function of the epithelium

A
  1. Controls the exchange of nutrients between the internal and external environments.
  2. Creates an internal environment that is different from the external environment.
  3. Regulates the excretion of waste.
  4. allows the internal environment to remain constant even if the external environment changes.
49
Q

Why Organisms must maintain homeostasis?

A

because optimal enzyme activity is achieved within a very narrow range of conditions.

Enzyme activity depends on conditions within a cell, such as temperature and pH, which must be kept within a certain narrow range.

50
Q

Integrator of a homeostatic system can

A

compares sensory information to a target value.

An integrator sends instructions to an effector based on sensory information.

51
Q

Sensor of a homeostatic system can

A

perceives changes in some parameter of the environment

52
Q

_______ actions acts to warm a homeothermic body

A

Shivering generates metabolic heat and warms the body.

53
Q

an example of statements describes a negative feedback response is

A

After a meal, blood sugar levels in the body rise; insulin is secreted to lower blood sugar levels.
-> The actions of insulin reverse the internal conditions of high blood sugar levels in the body.

54
Q

an example of negative feedback

A

After you eat, insulin stimulates the lowering of blood sugar levels.
=> Eating raises blood sugar levels; insulin stimulates the lowering of blood sugar level. In this example the response to the stimulus (increased blood sugar levels) opposes that stimulus (by lowering blood sugar levels).

55
Q

an example of extracellular signal molecules could diffuse through a plasma membrane and bind to an intracellular receptor

A

estrogen
=> Steroid hormones such as estrogen can diffuse through the plasma membrane and bind to intracellular receptors.

56
Q

The primary reason steroid hormones usually act slowly is that _____.

A

they turn genes on or off and it takes time for gene products to build up or become depleted

57
Q

Steroid hormone-receptor complexes act in _____.

A

the nucleus
=> Steroid hormone-receptor complexes bind to DNA, where they affect transcription.

58
Q

Suppose that a woman had to have part of her thyroid gland surgically removed. She would most likely suffer from a condition known as hypothyroidism due to too little thyroid function.
Predict how this woman’s hypothyroidism would affect prolactin levels in her body.

A

Thyroid hormones levels decrease, TRH levels increase, and PRL levels increase.

=> Surgical removal of all or part of the thyroid can result in hypothyroidism, or undersecretion of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4. Thyroid hormones have a negative feedback effect on the production of thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH) by the hypothalamus: When T3 and T4 levels decrease, TRH levels increase.
TRH has a stimulatory effect on the anterior pituitary’s production of both thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and prolactin (PRL). Therefore, when thyroid hormone levels decrease, TRH levels increase, stimulating the secretion of PRL.

When hypothyroidism causes an increased level of prolactin in the blood, a condition known as hyperprolactinemia may result. Symptoms can include abnormal menstrual cycles and infertility (in women), sexual dysfunction (in men), and headache (in both women and men). Many types of cells have prolactin receptors, and few patients with hyperprolactinemia produce milk.

59
Q

__________ molecules determine the tissue specificity of hormones?

A

Receptors
=> Hormones bind to receptors on target cells and trigger a cellular response.

60
Q

Lipid-insoluble hormones affect their target cells by binding to receptors inside the cell.
This statement is incorrect. Why?

A

Lipid-insoluble hormones cannot cross the plasma membrane and get into the cell, so they must bind to receptors on the cell surface and transduce their signals through signal transduction pathways.

61
Q

Lipid-soluble hormone act by affecting the transcription of genes. T or F?

A

T
=> Lipid-soluble hormones act by affecting the transcription of genes.

62
Q

Part complete
Which of the following is a structure that allows hormone-receptor complexes to bind to specific DNA sequences?

A

Zinc finger.
=> A zinc finger is a distinctive DNA-binding domain on some hormone receptors that is exposed when hormone-receptor complexes are formed.

63
Q

What is the role of cAMP in the signal transduction pathway activated by epinephrine?

A

It binds to and activates protein kinase A, which then phosphorylates other enzymes.
=> cAMP binds to and activates protein kinase A, which then phosphorylates other enzymes in the signal transduction pathway.

64
Q

True or false? For a signal transduction pathway to be activated, hormones must be present in the bloodstream at very high concentrations.

A

Only low concentrations of hormones are needed in the bloodstream to activate a signal transduction pathway, which works by producing second messengers inside the cell that amplify the hormonal signal.

65
Q

Which of these glands secretes releasing hormones?

A

Hypothalamus
=> The hypothalamus secretes both releasing and inhibiting hormones.

66
Q

Which of these hormones are responsible for the “fight or flight” response to danger?

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine
=> These hormones, secreted by the adrenal medulla, are responsible for the “fight or flight” response.

67
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) triggers the release of _____ in response to stress.

A

In response to stress, ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids.

68
Q

_____ are the main male hormones.

A

Androgens, such as testosterone, are the main male hormones.

69
Q

What hormone promotes water retention by the kidneys?

A

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
=> A diuretic promotes water loss; thus it makes sense that ADH (secreted by the anterior pituitary) promotes water conservation.

70
Q

Which hormone opposes the action of parathyroid hormone?

A

Calcitonin
=> Parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium levels; calcitonin lowers blood calcium levels.

71
Q

Which hormone stimulates hormone production by the ovaries and testes?

A

luteinizing hormone (LH)
=> LH stimulates hormone production by both the ovaries and testes.

72
Q

Which hormone stimulates milk production?

A

Prolactin
=> Prolactin, secreted by the anterior pituitary, stimulates milk production by the mammary glands.

73
Q

The relationship between the insect hormones ecdysone and PTTH

A

is an example of the interaction between the endocrine and nervous systems.

74
Q

A distinctive feature of the mechanism of action of thyroid hormones and steroid hormones is that

A

these hormones bind to receptors inside cells.

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