4.B - the global implications of water and carbon management

Question 1

how can the lush landscape of Palm Springs, Coachella Valley be explained?

Answer 1

• the coachella canal (123 miles and its underground water delivery system is used to irrigate nearly 60,000 acres of farmland

Question 2

what is the main economic activity in the Coachella Valley?

Answer 2

the Coachella Valley produces $500 million worth of produce every year

Question 3

what are the challenges of growing $500 million worth of produce every year in the Coachella Valley?

Answer 3

• temps go above 40C in the summer months. - very dry - lack of water
• no precipitation from April - June, all crops need to be irrigated
• any precipitation will evaporate before it can infiltrate due to high temps

Question 4

how significant is agriculture as a use of water? How can losses be reduced?

Answer 4

• agriculture is by far the biggest consumer - globally it accounts for 70% of water withdrawals and 90% of consumption
• wastage of water occurs through evaporation and seepage through inefficient water management (e.g. over irrigating crops)
• improved management techniques which minimise water losses through evaporation include mulching, zero-soil disturbance and drip-irrigation
• recovery and recycling of waste water is feasible but little used

Question 5

what are water agreements?

Answer 5

• water agreements divide up the resources between downstream states
• in Pakistan, the Punjab and Sindh recieve 92% of the Indus’ flow;
• in the Colorado Basin water resources are allocated to California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah and New Mexico.
• in both regions, the vast bulk of water is used for irrigation

Question 6

why does the colorado river need allocations?

Answer 6

• low annual precipitation
• an unreliable rainfall pattern
• and a significant seasonal imbalance on the colorado river basin

Question 7

how have the UN helped Brazil?

Answer 7

• BRAZIL HAS RECIEVED SUPPORT TO PROTECT ITS FORESTS
• the Amazon Regional Protected Areas (ARPA) programme now covers nearly 10% of the Amazon Basin
• areas included in the programme are strictly protected
• the benefits are significant: stabilising the regional water cycle; offsetting 430 mill tonnes of carbon a year; supporting indigenous forest communites; promoting eco tourism and protecting the genetic back provided by thousands of plant species

Question 8

how does the UN improve forestry?

Answer 8

• the crucial role of forests in the global water cycle is recognised by multilateral agencies such as the UN and World Bank
• they fund programmes to protect tropical rainforests
• the UN’s Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) programme fund over 50 partner countries in Africa, Asia-Pacific and South America
• Financial incentives to protect and restore forests are a combination of carbon offsets and direct funding

Question 9

what is drainage basin planning?

Answer 9

• drainage basin planning is the management of water resources:
• it is the process of adopting an holistic management approach to accomodate the conflicting demands of different water users (e.g. agriculture, industry, domestic use, biodiversity and so on.)

Question 10

what is drainage basin planning trying to solve?

Answer 10

• drainage basin planning encompasses everything: it is the overall planning strategy
• some things included in the planning are:
  > reducing flood risk (by planting trees/extending permeable surfaces in urban areas)
  > wetland restoration/conservation
  > controlling water management/demand (particularly controlling the extraction of water from aquifers/river channels)
  > monitoring pollution levels (e.g. London mega sewer)

Question 11

give an example of drainage basin planning?

Answer 11

• THE RIVER THAMES
• located in the middle of an artesian basin and lies on a chalk aquifer
• 1960s = poor water management led to the aquifer being overused and groundwater levels fell by about 90m
• rules and regulations were then put in place by the council to manage the water use (e.g. WATER ALLOCATION) to ensure the aquifer’s water table could return to a higher level
• effective and allowed for dynamic equilibrium
• being a developed country allowed the UK to have more control, making management of the resource more succesful

Question 12

evaluative comments about drainage basin planning?

Answer 12

SCALE:
- management of water resources is most effective on a local drainage basin scale
- easier when the drainage basin is in one country - trans-boundary drainage basins are difficult to manage (e.g. Pakistan/India Indus river)
COST:
- easier in ACs as opposed to EDCs/LIDCs as they have both the money and resources to tackle the issue
OTHER THINGS:
- need loads of different players with different aims to agree (difficult to work)
- relies on a steady input of precipitation
- more effective in countries with relatively static populations/water demands
- hugely significant factor as it encompasses everything

Question 13

what is AFFORESTATION?

Answer 13

• afforestation involves planting trees in deforested area that have never been forested
• because trees are carbon sinks, afforestation can help reduce atmospheric CO2 levels in the longer term and combat climate change
• it also can reduce flood risk/soil erosion and improve biodiversity

Question 14

how does AFFORESTATION work?

Answer 14

• afforestation involves planting trees on land that has not recently been covered with forest
• because forests remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and can potentially store that carbon for long periods of time, afforestation is often counted as a form of carbon removal

Question 15

give an example of AFFORESTATION?

Answer 15

• in china, a massive government-sponsored afforestation project began in 1978
• it aims to afforest 400,000 sq km by 2050
• the project has a wider aim of combatting desertification and land degredation in the vast semi-arid expanses of northern china.

Question 16

evaluation of AFFORESTATION?

Answer 16

• can work in both rich and poor countries
• can provide additional ecological/socio-economic benefits e.g. habitat preservation, soil protection and water regulation
• HOWEVER:
• it requires financial resources, space and a long term commitment. EDCs/LIDCs may face challenged in sustaining large scale efforts w/o financial support
• involving indigenous/local communities is crucial for success. their knowledge can ensure the sustainablility of forest management, promote social equity and respect land rights
• competing land use may make afforestation less practical (e.g. urbanisation of EDCs)
• depends on climate, soil conditions, water availabilty (wouldnt work in colorado, e.g.)

Question 17

what is a “cap and trade” system?

Answer 17

• a scheme where a limit is placed on the right to emit specified pollutants over an area
• if they exceed their quota this can result in fines, but if countries are able to come up with methods to emit less, they are given carbon credits that can be bought by other countries who have exceeded their quota
• richer countries can assist poorer countries by transferring funds/technologies to help them meet targets
• major CO2 emitters argue that europe and north america should be more responsible for helping reduce emissions due to industrialisation and current economic development

Question 18

example of the REDUCING EMISSIONS strategy?

Answer 18

• THE PARIS AGREEMENT
• countries can set their own non-legally binding targets (no competition)
• provides financial assistance to more vulnerable countries, which encourages voluntary contributions by other parties
• climate finance is needed for mitigation, because large scale investments are required to significantly reduce emissions, therefore this scheme is important

Question 19

evaluation of the REDUCING EMISSIONS strategy?

Answer 19

• should be the best strategy BUT countries dont have to sign up
• can be implemented on a very large global scale
• overall could reverse impacts of global climate change if all parties get involved
• the only strategy that actually tackles the cause of the problem
• co-operation has been difficult due to economic/political barriers in some of the world’s largest polluters
• some success, but there are no rules. “Cap and Trade” is completely voluntary and its therefore difficult to encourage countries/businesses to do it.

Question 20

what is wetland restoration?

Answer 20

• wetland restoration is the manipulation of a former or degraded wetland’s physical, chemical, or biological characteristics to return its natural functions

Question 21

what are wetlands?

Answer 21

• wetlands include freshwater marshes, floodplains and mangroves
• their common feature is a water table at or near the surface causing the ground to be permanently saturated
• wetlands are important in the carbon cycle: they occupy very small amounts of surface but are very efficient (6-9% of surface but contain 35% of terrestrial carbon pool)

Question 22

why do wetlands need to be restored?

Answer 22

• urbanisation, population growth and economic development have placed huge pressure on wetland environments
• in the lower 48 US states the wetland areas have halved since 1600
• as well as negatively effecting biodiversity and wildlife habitats, destruction of wetlands transfers huge amounts of stored CO2 and CH4 to the atmosphere

Question 23

what does wetland restoration focus on?

Answer 23

• restoration focuses on raising local water tables to re-create waterlogged conditions
• wetlands on floodplains for example can be reconnected to rivers by the removal of flood embankments and controlled floods
• coastal areas can be restored by breaching sea defences
• elsewhere water levels can be maintained at artificially high levels by diverting or blocking drainage ditches and installing sluice gates

Question 24

example of the RESTORING WETLANDS strategy?

Answer 24

• Canada’s prarie provinces lost 70% of their wetlands
• restoration in this area has shown that wetlands can store on average 3.25 tonnes C/ha/yr
• now, 112,000 ha have been targeted for restoration in the canadian prairies which should eventually sequester 364,000 tonnes c/yr

Question 25

evaluation of the RESTORING WETLANDS strategy?

Answer 25

• only appropriate for countries which have wetlands
• restoration itself is not expensive, however being able to aquire the land is as there is little incentive to do so (would often require alternative incomes for farmers)
• effective strategy. they have the potential to be significant however tensions regarding land use limits their significance (climate regulation vs economic gain)

Question 26

what unsustainable agricultural practices are currently taking place?

Answer 26

• overcultivation
• over grazing
• excessive intensification
  (lead to soil erosion and release of CO2)
• livestock farming
  (produces up to 100 mill tonnes of carbon annually)

Question 27

how can land/crop management reduce GHG emissions?

Answer 27

• zero tillage - not ploughing the soil when growing crops, conserving its carbon content and risk of erosion
• polyculture - growing crops among trees (provides cover and protection)
• crop residues - leaving roots/stems/leaves of previous plants in the soil to prevent soil erosion and drying out
• avoid heavy machinery which lead to compaction
• genetically engineering new strains of rice to either have a higher yield per m2 or to be able to grow in drier conditions.

Question 28

how can livestock management reduce GHG emissions?

Answer 28

• improving quality of animal feed
• reduces enteric fermentation producing CH4

Question 29

how can manure management reduce GHG emissions?

Answer 29

• controlling how it decomposes
• storing manure in anaerobic containers and capturing CH4 - renewable energy

Question 30

evaluation of improving agricultural practises?

Answer 30

• most practices are cheap so accessible for all levels of wealth
• don’t require any more space
• LIDCs often rely more on agriculture so may be less inclined to adopt practices that could reduce overall yield/cost more
• DOESN’T REVERSE CLIMATE CHANGE
• could make a small difference but won’t be very sig
• easier to implement on a local scale as easier to monitor
• no real way of enforcing practice
• lack of yield = less produce = less profit

Question 31

how does planting trees to sequester carbon work?

Answer 31

• forest carbon sequestration is the process of increasing the carbon content of the forest by planting more trees which then can photosynthesize and remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
• once sequestered, the carbon is stored in living biomass, soil and litter within the forest and contributes to the carbon sink of the forest
• around 50% of the dry mass of a tree is carbon which will be stored for the lifetime of the tree, or longer if the wood is then used

Question 32

evaluation of planting trees to sequester carbon

Answer 32

• affordable/accessible
• research has to be done for soil/plant types
• tension over land use
• has knock on impacts (↓ crops/ag resources)
• takes time, cant be seen as a possiblity for ST
• forests are one of the biggest stores of carbon on the planet

Question 33

how could stopping ploughing help sequester carbon?

Answer 33

• ploughing releases carbon into the atmosphere and depletes the micro-organisms which enrich the soil
• ↓ release of CO2 and ↓ surface run off
• rather than ploughing, using a variety of plant types according to what they would give to land has less sig. negative impacts
• the plants symbiotically protect each other and decompose to provide nutrients to the soil
• min-till/no-till farming are other alternatives
• will reduce the amount the soil is disturbed by using shallower cultivations, only to a depth of 15cm

Question 34

evaluation of stopping ploughing?

Answer 34

• hard to enforce
• prone to climate change impacts
• farmers depend on agricultural high yields for livelihoods
• more effective machinery to limit soil damages are often expensive for farmers in LIDCs
• wont have a huge impact

Question 35

what is CCS?

Answer 35

• carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a technology that aims to reduce the amount of CO2 emissions released into the atmosphere from industrial processes, power generation and other sources
• CCS involves capturing CO2 from these sources, compressing it and then transporting it to an underground site where it is stored
• the goal of CCS is to prevent the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere where it can contribute to climate change and instead store it in a way that doesn’t pose a risk to the environment
• e.g. TEESIDE

Question 36

what is the goal of CCS?

Answer 36

• the goal of CCS is to prevent the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere where it can contribute to climate change
• and instead store it in a way that doesn’t pose a risk to the environment

Question 37

how effective is CCS?

Answer 37

• has the potential to be highly effective at reducing GHG emissions, particularly in industries that are difficult to decarbonize through other means
• by capturing and storing carbon, CCS can help to reduce the overall amount of GHGs in the atmosphere and slow the rate of climate change
• COST - can be very high
• concerns over safety/long term stability of carbon storage sites, as well as potential environmental impact of the storage process
• great in the ST
• but LT takes away incentive to change energy systems to renewable
• LT fossil fuels will run out

Question 38

how does fertilising plankton work?

Answer 38

• carbon dioxide is consumed during photosynthesis and the carbon is incorporated in the phytoplankton
• most of the carbon is returned to near-surface waters when phytoplankton are eaten/decompose, but some falls into the ocean depths
• worldwide, this biological pump transfers about 10 gigatons of carbon from the atmosphere to the deep ocean each year
• even small changes in the growth of phytoplankton may affect atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations which would feed back to global surface temperatures

Question 39

evaluation of fertilising plankton?

Answer 39

• it could promote phytoplankton growth in areas which naturally thrive less
• oceans are massive = make a global difference
• ↑ carbon = ↑ acidity of oceans = knock on impacts
• less conflict unlike planting trees (no sovereign control)
• potential but very difficult
• doesn’t deal with the root of the issue

Question 40

what is iron fertilisation?

Answer 40

• the intentional introduction of iron to iron-poor areas of the ocean surface to stimulate phytoplankton production
• this is intended to enhance biological productivity and/or accelerate carbon dioxide sequestration from the atmosphere

Question 41

what are water allocations?

Answer 41

• the process of distributing water supplies to meet the various requirements of a community
• allocations depend on time of year/how wet the year is (wet year = rainfall irrigates crops, dry year = water needed from river)
• as long as inputs are continually added to the system, this is extremely effective

Question 42

what issue in the water cycle is water allocations tackling?

Answer 42

• tackles wastage of water through inefficient water management e.g. over-irrigating crops
• encourages people to use strategies to minimise water loss
• the sharing of limited water during droughts when supplies are inadequate to meet all needs
• maintains water level of stores

Question 43

how effective are water allocations?

Answer 43

• water allocation works well in developed countries and within borders e.g Thames, no conflict
• difficult to enforce in trans boundary rivers
• problems when drought as there are no inputs of water into the drainage basin for extended periods of time therefore not 1000 litres of water available
• problems due to other countries increasing demands for large scale projects
• international agreements make this strategy more effective e.g. Indus Water Treaty

Question 44

what is improving forestry?

Answer 44

• improving forestry techniques can play a crucial role in protecting the water cycle through a variety of management strategies
• this involves adopting techniques that promote the long term health and productivity of forests while minimizing negative impacts on water resources
• this can include measures such as selective logging, reforestation and maintaining forest buffer zones along water bodies

Question 45

what issue within the water cycle is improving forestry tackling?

Answer 45

• improving forestry techniques leads to increased ground coverage and therefore increases interception, evapotranspiration and decreased surface run off

Question 46

what is watershed management?

Answer 46

• adopting a watershed based approach to forestry management is crucial
• watershed management involves considering the entire hydrological cycle within a specific geographical area
• it includes mapping and monitoring water resources, identifying critical areas for protection and implementing appropriate forest management practices to maintain water quality and quantity

Question 47

evaluation of improving forestry?

Answer 47

• can be implemented on a large scale
• space may be limited due to rapid urbanisation
• low cost
• afforestation take a long time to implement and wont be a ST solution
• lack of economic benefit = no incentive
• effectiveness depends on where you are - more trees grow in tropics. PLACE MAKES A DIFFERENCE
• what type of tree is most effective?