Approaches in Psychology

Question 1

when and where was the first lab dedicated to psychology opened

Answer 1

In 1879, Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory of the world in Leipzig, Germany, where he mainly studied sensations and feelings by employing experimental methods.

Question 2

Wundt’s experiment

Answer 2

Aim - to investigate the structure of the human mind/conscience

Method - Breakdown behaviour into basic elements (emotions, sensations,and perception) structuralism

Procedure - Introspection - looking into and observing our inner world, gaining knowledge about your mental and emotional state

Controlled conditions - same stimuli, standardised instructions, replication

observers show an object and are asked to reflect upon how they were perceiving on it, This gave an insight into the nature of the mental processes.

High-trained assistants would be given a stimulus such as a ticking metronome and would reflect on the experience. They would report what the stimulus made them think and feel. The same stimulus, physical surroundings and instructions were given to each person.

Conclusions - mental processes such as memory and perception could be observed systematically using introspection.

Question 3

Define psychology

Answer 3

the scientific study of the mind and behaviour.

Question 4

Explain what Wundt meant by introspection

Answer 4

Introspection is the process by which a person gains knowledge about their own mental and emotional states. Our introspective ability allows us to observe our inner world.
For example, observers might be shown an object and asked to reflect on how they were perceiving it. This information could then be used to gain insight into the nature of the mental processes involved in perception.

Question 5

Explain Watson’s criticism of introspection

Answer 5

He rejected the idea of introspection—that it was impossible to think about consciousness in a scientific way, or to use the mind to think about the mind. The only reliable material for scientific analysis was the observable facts of behaviour.Watson only wanted to study with observable, objective behaviors that would be described in terms of a stimulus and a response.

Question 6

How did Watson and Skinner attempt to overcome the limitations of introspection

Answer 6

Watson and Skinner established the behaviourist approach. They criticised Freud and Wundt arguing that true scientific psychology should restrict itself to studying phenomena that can be directly observed and measured. They believed that all behaviour is learnt and that psychologists should only be interested in observable behaviours.

Question 7

Briefly explain the emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 7

• first to open a laboratory designated to the scientific study of psychological enquiry under controlled conditions facilitating accurate measurements and replication

Wundt showed that empirical methods could be applied to the study of mental processes. Empirical methods of research are based on actual experience rather than theory or belief. It involves gathering data in an objective way so that researcher’s preconceptions cannot influence data. It also measures quantitative details so that patterns can be examined and inferences from the result are credible.

Question 8

Describe Wundt’s role in the development of psychology.
(Total 6 marks)

Answer 8

He is known as the father of psychology

He set up the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany

Promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying internal mental processes

Introspection is the systematic analysis of own conscious experience of a stimulus

His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes e.g by cognitive psychologists.

Question 9

Millie is asked to do a class presentation on introspection. As part of her presentation she
said, ‘Introspection is thinking about our own thoughts.’
After the presentation, her classmates said they had learned very little about introspection.
Explain what else Millie could have said about the major features of introspection so that
her classmates would be better informed.
(Total 4 marks)

Answer 9

Millie could have explained Wundt’s role in developing introspection. He intended to use introspection to study higher mental processes such as memory indirectly through observation. Participants are asked to reflect on their experience by looking at their sensations and emotional reactions to the stimulus. The goal of introspection is to break down thoughts into smaller elements.

Question 10

Which of the following statements best describes Wundt’s use of the term introspection?

Answer 10

D - Investigating internal events by examining
conscious thoughts and feelings.

Question 11

Which of the psychologists A, B, C or D is best known in relation to the emergence of
psychology as a science? Shade one box only.

Answer 11

D- Wundt

Question 12

Which of the following sentences best describes Wundt’s method of introspection? Shade
one box only.
Introspection involves …

Answer 12

B - reporting present experience.

Question 13

Behaviourist approach

Answer 13

based on the idea that when we are born our mind is a (a blank slate) and all behaviour is acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment, with our behaviour being shaped by our responses to stimuli.

Question 14

Pavlov’s research - classical conditioning

Answer 14

Pavlov showed that dogs could associate a bell with food. He did this by first presenting the dogs with a bell (NS), which produced no response. Then he presented them with food (UCS), which gave an unconditioned response of salivation. During conditioning, he repeatedly presented them with the bell (NS) and the food (UCS) and salvation had become a conditioned response. Pavlov demonstrated that repeated exposure to an event leads to learned and uncontrollable behaviour.

Question 15

Operant conditioning - Skinner’s research

Answer 15

1. Operant conditioning is a method of learning that uses rewards and **punishments to modify behaviour. **
2. Positive reinforcement increases the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated.
3. Punishment decreases the possibility that the behaviour will be repeated.
4. Negative reinforcement refers to the process of removing an unpleasant stimulus after the desired behavior is displayed in order to increase the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.
5. Through operant conditioning, the rat eventually learnt to press the lever to get food. For Skinner, behaviour is the result of learning and remembering the consequences of previous behaviours.

Question 16

Social learning theory

Answer 16

SLT people learn through observation and imitation of others.

Question 17

Vicarious reinforcement

Answer 17

imitation only occurs if the behaviour is seen to be rewarded rather than punished- they observer the consequence of the behaviour

Question 18

The role of mediational processes

Answer 18

Attention - the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
Retention - how well the behaviour is remembered
Motor reproduction - the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
Motivation - this will perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished

Question 19

Identification

Answer 19

People are more likely to imitate people who they identify with

Question 20

Inference

Answer 20

the process where cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.

Question 21

Theoretical and computer models

Answer 21

Theoretical models are diagrammatic representations of the steps involved in internal mental processes, e.g. the information-processing model.
Computer models suggest that the mind works like a computer, turning information into a format in which it can be stored

Question 22

The role of schemas

Answer 22

A key concept to the approach is the schema, an **internal ‘script’ for how to act or what to expect from a given situation. **

They alter the mental processing of incoming information; their role in EWT can be negative, as what somebody expects to see may distort their memory of was actually witnessed.

Question 23

The emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 23

• The emergence of cognitive neuroscience occurred due to** advances in brain imaging techniques **such as fMRI and PET scans, which allow scientists to study the neurobiological basis of mental processes like memory.
• These controlled experiments are replicable, and the data obtained is objective (not influenced by an individual’s judgment or opinion) and measurable. This gives psychology more credibility.

Question 24

A* extra stuff for cognitive psychology

Answer 24

Cognitive psychology grew into prominence between the 1950s and 1970s. Prior to this time, **behaviourism was the dominant perspective in psychology. **

The behavioural approach neglects areas of human behaviour, such as memory perception and thinking. The cognitive process argues that theses factors should and can be tested.

Question 25

Supporting evidence for cognitive approach

Answer 25

Tulving - Different types of LTM are located on opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex. - Episodic
One store can be damaged but other stores remain unaffected.

Braver et al - there was greater activity in the left pre-frontal cortex, the activity in this area increased as the task become harder.
Conclusion - The central executive WMM resides in the pre-frontal cortex.

Question 26

The biological approach assumptions

Answer 26

to fully understand human behaviour, we must look to biological structures and processes within the body. From a biological perspective, the mind lives in the brain so all the thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis.
So the cognitive approach that sees mental processes of the mind as being separate from the physical pain.

Twin studies/Family studies/ Adoption studies

Question 27

The genetic hypothesis
Biochemistry (Neurotransmitters)
Infections
Neuroanatomy
Genetic

Answer 27

Psychological characteristics, such as intelligence, are inherited in the same way as height or eye colour.
Twin studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis. This is achieved by analysing the concordance rate (the likelihood).
If a characteristic is genetic we would expect all identical (monozygotic) twins to be concordant (they share 100% of the same genes). Whereas the same would not be true for non -identical (dizygotic) twins who share about 50% of the same genes. In both cases, **the environment is assumed to be constant. **

Question 28

Genotype and phenotype

Answer 28

Genotype + environment = phenotype
A person’s genotype is their genetic make-up, whereas** phenotype is the way that genes are exposed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics.

Despite having the same genes the way identical twin’s genes are expressed (the phenotype) is different.
This illustrates what many biological psychologists would accept, that much of human behaviour depends upon the interaction between inherited factors (nature) and the environment (nurture).

PKU rare genetic disorder
- detected in babies using a heel prick test
causing severe learning difficulties
if detected early enough, child can be placed on a restricted diet and will develop normally.

Question 29

Evolution and Behaviour

Answer 29

The main principle of this theory **(natural selection) - any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival (and reproduction) will continue for future generations. **

In nature this selection takes place naturally - no one ‘decides’ the selection occurs simply because some traits give the processor certain advantages.

The processor is more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on these traits. If the individual survives but does **not reproduce, the traits do not remain in the gene pool for successive generations. **

survival is referred to as adaptive-naturally selective
1. Increases our survival
2. The survival of offspring
3. the chances of reproducing offspring (reproductive success)

Selective Breeding - artificially selecting
has been to demonstrate how a no. of behavioural characteristics may have a genetic basis.

Question 30

Psychodynamic Approach

Answer 30

All behavior has a cause (usually unconscious)
All behavior is determined by…
1. The unconscious
2. The structure of personality
3. Psychosexual stages (childhood experiences)

Question 31

Psychodynamic Approach:
Mind is split into :

Answer 31

**Conscious: The part of the mind we are aware of – everyday thoughts and feelings

Preconscious: Thoughts and memories not accessible at all times, but easily recalled

Unconscious: The deep dark shameful part! Repressed thoughts, memories and feelings

Question 32

The structure of personality (tripartite personality)

Answer 32

ID- (primitive- present at birth and forms 1st) is selfish and pleasure orientated - Too strong – selfish/ out of control/could become psychopathic
**- urges and impulses and gives instant gratification **

EGO- (develops around age 2) - rational- mediates between id and superego - Too weak – allows id and superego to dominate

SUPEREGO- (develops around age 5) concerned with what’s right and wrong - Too strong – strict, anxious, obsessive – depression, anxiety, OCD
**- follows rules and has morals **

If they are unbalanced, or at conflict with each other, this can cause us a lot of anxiety and may eventually lead to mental abnormality.

Question 33

Defence Mechanism

hint R/D/D

3 points

Answer 33

Repression - You repress behaviour into the unconscious and you are not aware that you are doing this.

Denial - You completely reject the thought or feeling

Displacement - You redirect your feelings to another target

Question 34

psychosexual stages

Old Age Pensioners Love Guinness!

Answer 34

1. Oral stage (0-1) yrs
2. Anal stage (1-3 yrs)
3. Phallic stages (3-5 yrs)
4. latency stage (5 - puberty)
5. Genital stage (puberty - adult)

If the conflicts at these stages are not resolved (fixation) then psychological and behavioural problems occurs later on.

Question 35

Oedipus Complex

Answer 35

**Freud believed Hans’ fears, dreams and fantasies were symbolic of his unconscious passing through the phallic stage of psychosexual development.
- Because Han’s was experiencing the Oedipus complex (a sexual desire for his mother and rivalry with his father) he was subconsciously scared of his father. This fear was manifested in a fear of horses, particularly those with dark around the mouth (representing his father’s beard) and blinkers (which represented his glasses).
Freud claims that psychoanalysis was an effective treatment for Little Hans because it identifies the unconscious cause of the abnormality which is then brought into the conscious to be discussed and resolved.

Question 36

Psychosexual stages

Answer 36

**Oral 0-1 yrs = focus of pleasure is the mouth, mother’s breast is the object of desire.
Oral fixation - smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical

Anal 1-3 yrs Focus on pleasure in the anus. The child gains pleasure from **withholding and expelling faeces
Anal retentive - perfectionist, obsessive
Anal expulsive - thoughtless, messy
**
Phallic 3-6 yrs Focus of pleasure is the genital area. Child experiences the Oedipus or Electra complex
**Phallic personality - narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual **

Latency - earlier conflicts are restored

Genital-sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.

Question 37

Q1. Outline one limitation of the psychodynamic approach. (Total 2 marks)

Answer 37

The key concepts like the unconscious are not directly observable. That means that there is little objective evidence that can be used to support the approach

Which one of the following statements is false?
C Repression involves people choosing to forget unpleasant memories
Which one of the following statements is false?
C The Superego is responsible for bad behaviour

Question 38

Q2. Describe the structure of the personality according to the psychodynamic approach. (Total 4 marks)

Answer 38

personality is made up of 3 parts; the id, ego and superego
the id focuses on self (selfish), irrational and emotional, deals with feelings and needs, seeks pleasure and its formed from birth-18mo, the unconscious part of the mind. - pleasure principle
* the ego: Rational, balancing the id and superego, reference to ‘reality principle’, formed between 18mo-3yrs, conscious part of the mind
* the superego: Reference to ‘morality principle’, acts as the conscience or moral guide, based on parental and societal values, formed between 3-6yrs, unconscious part of the mind

Question 39

Q3. Tim used to run a family business. About two years ago, the business got into financial difficulties. Tim’s bank demanded repayment of a loan. Tim lost the business and is very angry. Two defence mechanisms are denial and displacement. Outline what is meant by denial and displacement and suggest how each could be involved in Tim coping with his situation. (Total 4 marks)

Answer 39

Denial – refusing to acknowledge the reality
Displacement – taking out your emotions on a substitute object
Tim refuses to believe his business is gone and still spends all day in his office (denial)
Tim takes out his anger at the bank by arguing with his family (displacement).

Question 40

Q4. Jed was given a detention meaning that he would miss the football match after school. Jed felt extremely angry. Later that day, Jed was called in to the Head of Year ’s office for kicking his locker at break time. Identify and explain the defence mechanism Jed was displaying. (Total 3 marks)

Answer 40

Jed is using displacement as a defence mechanism as he is taking out he’s motions on a substitute object in his locker.
Displacement - the focus of a strong emotion is expressed on a neutral/alternative person or object.
Jed’s anger at the detention / missing the football match is transferred to the locker.

Question 41

Q5. Emily very much wanted to pass her ballet examination, but after she failed the examination she did not seem upset. Suggest one defence mechanism and use your knowledge of this defence mechanism to explain why Emily was not upset after failing her ballet examination. (Total 2 marks)

Answer 41

Emily’s defence mechanism was rationalisation, Emily may not see the examination result as important as she was not fully prepared

Question 42

Q6. (a) Outline a psychodynamic explanation for the development of the superego. (3)
(b) Explain how the superego might affect moral behaviour in the following situation: Jackie sees a T-shirt that she really likes in a store. She is aware that there are no security cameras nearby and thinks how easy it would be to slip the T-shirt into her bag. (2) (Total 5 marks)

Answer 42

occurs at the **Phallic stage of psychosexual development **
* arises through identification with same-sex parent
part of the tripartite personality

the unconscious conflict between the id impulses - Jackie desires the top; the demanding, threatening superego (Jackie does not steal the top (or pays for it at the till) because of guilt even at the possibility of wrong-doing).
where the superego fails to stop Jackie from stealing the t-shirt or where the ego ideal operates to reward good behaviour ie not stealing.

Question 43

Humanistic Assumptions

Answer 43

• Humans have free will - personal agency
• All individuals are unique and have an innate (inborn) drive to achieve their maximum potential.
• Behavior is not constrained by either past experience of the individual or current circumstances (determinism).

Question 44

Free will

Answer 44

**Free will is the idea that people can make choices, in how they act and are self-determining.
- Personal agency is the humanistic term for the exercise of free will.
- Behaviour is not constrained by either past experiences of the individual or current circumstances (determinism). **
- Individuals are free when they are congruent or self-actualised.

Question 45

Self-actualisation

Answer 45

**the desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential -becoming what you are capable of. **
- Self - actualisation is only possible if there is a **congruence between an individual who sees themselves and their ideal self. **
- people could only self-actualise if they had a positive view of themselves. if there is a large group between the 2 concepts, negative feelings of self-worth will arise will make it impossible for self-actualisation to take place.

Question 46

congruence and conditions of self-worth

Answer 46

**Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved an individual’s concept of self (self-perception) must have congruence with their ideal self.

Ideal self - this is the person who we would like to be. it consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic i.e. forever changing.**

Question 47

Client-centered therapy

Answer 47

aims to increase clients’ self-worth and **decrease the incongruence between self-concept and the ideal self. **
- it’s non-directive therapy in which the client is encouraged to discover their own solutions to their own difficulties in an atmosphere, that is supportive and non-judgemental and that provides unconditional positive regard.

Question 48

Congruence v incongruence

Answer 48

• congruence is a state in which a person’s ideal self and actual experiences are consistent or very similar.
  If the gap between them is too big they will experience a **state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to negative feelings of self-worth that arises from incongruence. **
  A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if same of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image.

Question 49

Humanistic methodology

3 points - interview/Observation/written material

Answer 49

Humanistic psychology prefers **qualitative methods **
1. Unstructured interviewing - this allows access to other people’s views and experiences without imposing on them the researcher’s ideas about what is important.

2. participant observation- this is where the **researcher takes part in what the participants are studying in order to understand how their participants perceive it. **
3. Diaries, letters and biographical material - humanistic psychologists may also analyse all sorts of their qualitative materials that allow them insight into how people understand their world.

Question 50

Outline the behavioural approach

Answer 50

Behaviourism is a theory of learning that states all behaviours are learned through conditioned interaction with the environment. The belief is that behaviour is acquired through operant and classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is the idea that we learn everything through association.
**Pavlov showed that dogs could associate a bell with food. He did this by first presenting the dogs with a bell (NS), which produced no response. Then he presented them with food (UCS), which gave an unconditioned response of salivation. During conditioning, he repeatedly presented them with the bell (NS) and the food (UCS) and salvation had become a conditioned response. Pavlov demonstrated that repeated exposure to an event leads to learned and uncontrollable behaviour. **
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that uses rewards and punishments to modify behaviour. Three consequences will affect behaviour, positive reinforcement involves rewarding behaviour, which increases the likelihood of it being repeated; negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant outcome to increase the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated; punishment involves adding an unpleasant outcome to a behaviour, which reduces the likelihood of it being repeated. Through operant conditioning, the rat eventually learnt to press the lever to get food. For Skinner, behaviour is the result of learning and remembering the consequences of previous behaviours.

Question 51

outline the cognitive approach

Answer 51

The cognitive approach studies areas of psychology, like memory that were previously neglected by the behaviourist approach. Cognitive psychologists draw **conclusions about how internal mental processes operate. **

• Theoretical and Computer models enable the representation of complex conceptual processes so that their components can be better understood. Schema theory is another information-processing model that emphasises how perception and memory are shaped by cognitive frameworks built from experience that organise and interpret information in the brain. - - -
• Schemas allow us to make sense of an often ambiguous world by “filling in the gaps” in our knowledge, and thus enable us to act comfortably even when our information is incomplete. Additionally, **Cognitive neuroscience is an area of psychology dedicated to the underlying neural bases of cognitive functions. **

Cognitive neuroscience came into prominence following the use of techniques such as fMRI and PET scans to identify regions of the brain that may be associated with functions like language comprehension and speech.

Question 52

Outline the biological approach

Answer 52

**The biological approach states that everything psychological is at first biological. As a result of this, it is important to look at biological structures and processes. The approach assumes that all thoughts and feelings have a physical basis.
Biological psychology emphasizes the genetic basis of behaviour and often uses ‘twin studies’ to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis.

A person’s genotype is their genetic makeup, whilst a person’s phenotype is the way that genes are exposed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics.

The biological approach has often been linked to the explanation of evolution, suggesting that advantageous genes that increase someone’s chance of survival are passed onto future generations - this is natural selection.

Question 53

Outline the psychodynamic approach

Answer 53

The psychodynamic approach argues that most of our mind is made up of the unconscious; a vast store of biological drives and instincts that influence our behaviour and personality. It also contains threatening and disturbing memories repressed or locked away. These can be accessed through ‘slips of the tongue’ (parapraxes). The preconscious mind contains thoughts not currently in conscious awareness but can still be accessed.

Freud claimed that child development occurs in five stages such as the oral and phallic stage; any psychosexual stage that is unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ carrying conflicts associated with that stage onto adulthood. Defence mechanisms are also unconscious mechanisms that ensure that the ego is able to prevent us from being overwhelmed by threats & trauma through repression, denial and displacement.

The psychodynamic approach also looks at the ‘tripartite’ structure of personality identified by Freud; the id (operating on the pleasure principle), the ego (operating on the reality principle) and the superego, based on the morality principle.