Approaches - Paper 2 Flashcards
Who opened the first psychology lab?
Wilhelm Wundt in 1879
What were Wundt’s aims?
To analyse the nature of human consciousness
What is introspection?
The systematic attempt to study the mind by breaking it up into the conscious awareness into the basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
What was Wundt’s procedure?
He aimed to develop theories about mental processes through him and his coworkers recording their experiences of various stimuli such as objects and sounds eg. they were given a ticking metronome. Their observations were divided into 3 categories : thoughts, images and sensations
What is structuralism?
Isolating the structure of consciousness by breaking it down into its simplest components
What is a strength of Wundt’s work - scientific?
. SCIENTIFIC - His methods were generally systematic and well-controlled. All introspections were recorded in a controlled environment (the lab), reducing the likelihood of extraneous variables interfering with results. Also, procedures and instructions were standardised, so all participants received the same instructions and were tested in the same way. As such, Wundt can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches in psychology.
What is a limitation of Wundt’s work - subjective?
. SUBJECTIVE DATA - Other aspects of Wundt’s work would be considered unscientific today. He relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes - this data is therefore subjective (influenced by a personal perspective). Participants may have also hidden some of their thoughts. It is difficult to establish meaningful ‘laws of behaviour’ from these results. This suggests some of Wundt’s earlier studies were flawed and do not meet the criteria of scientific enquiry
What is a counterargument to the subjectivity argument - Wundt?
Wundt’s research can be seen to align with the idiographic approach, which is focused on the individual case in order to understand behaviour. In this approach, generalisations can be made through the identification of emergent themes which are seen repeatedly in several individuals. So while Wundt’s research might not be scientific in all aspects, it is unfair to claim that it is completely incapable of making predictions about future behaviour.
Psychology in the 1900’s :
. Behaviourist approach popular, focused on observable and measurable phenomena. Behaviourists such as Watson and Skinner focus on observable behaviours and used carefully controlled experiments. The behaviourist approach dominated for the next 50 years.
. Psychodynamic approach - Freud emphasises the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour, and develops his client centered therapy, psychoanalysis
Psychology in the 1910’s:
. Skinner establishes the behaviourist approach, dominates psychology along with psychodynamic approach for early 20th century
Psychology in the 1950’s:
. Rogers and Maslow develop the humanistic approach, emphasising the importance of self-determination and free will and rejecting the behaviourist and psychodynamic view that human behaviour is determined by outside forces.
. Cognitive approach reintroduces the study of mental processes but in a more scientific way, inspired by the introduction of the digital computer. They liken the mind to a computer and test predictions using experiments. The cognitive approach focused a legitimate and scientific study of the mind.
Psychology in the 1960’s:
. Bandura proposes social learning theory, linking the cognitive approach and behaviourism by drawing attention to the role of cognitive factors in learning
Psychology in the 1980’s:
. Biological approach becomes the dominant scientific perspective in psychology, taking advantage of developments in psychology to increase understanding of the brain and biological processes
Psychology in the 2000’s:
. Cognitive neuroscience emerges, brings together cognitive and biological approach, investigates how biological structures influence mental states
What is a strength of psychological research - scientific?
Psychology has the same aims as the natural sciences – to describe, understand, predict and control behaviour. The learning approaches, cognitive approach and biological approach all rely on the use of scientific methods e.g. lab studies to investigate theories in a controlled and unbiased way. This suggests that throughout and post the 20th century psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline
What is a limitation of psychological research - subective?
Not all approaches in psychology use objective methods. The humanistic approach rejects the scientific approach, focusing instead on individual and subjective experiences. The psychodynamic approach frequently uses case studies, which do not use representative samples. Also, psychology is almost entirely focused on humans and uses human subjects in research, which creates the possibility of findings suffering from demand characteristics. Therefore a scientific approach to the study of human thought and experience may not always be desirable or possible
Outline the behaviourist approach
An approach which aims to explain behaviour in terms of what is observable and measurable. Behaviourists aim to maintain control and objectivity, using lab studies and rejecting concepts such as introspection, which are seen as too vague and difficult to measure.
The central concept of the behaviourist approach is the idea that behaviour is learned. It argues that we are born as a ‘blank slate’ (tabula rasa) which is developed through experience. Behaviourists suggest that the basic processes which govern learning are the same in all species, allowing animals to replace humans in behaviourist research.
What is classical conditioning?
Learning by association. Classical conditioning occurs when two stimuli – an unconditioned and a neutral stimulus – are repeatedly paired together. The neutral stimulus eventually becomes a conditioned stimulus, producing the same response alone as the unconditioned stimulus on its own
What was Pavlov’s (1927) study?
Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning in action using dogs. Food (an unconditioned stimulus) produced the unconditioned response of salivation in the dogs. Pavlov paired the food (UCS) with a ringing bell (a neutral stimulus). The bell initially produced no response on its own. The repeated association between the bell (NS) and the food (UCS) eventually led to the bell becoming a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produced the conditioned response of salivation, even when the bell was used in isolation.
What is extinction?
If a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response may eventually disappear, so that the stimulus reverts to being a neutral stimulus which produces no response – this is known as extinction
What is Spontaneous recovery in terms of classical conditioning?
Even if a conditioned stimulus appears to be ‘extinct’, it may occasionally still trigger the unconditioned response. E.g. the dog in Pavlov’s study may still salivate at the sound of a bell on occasion – this is known as spontaneous recovery
What is generalisation?
The unconditioned response may be elicited in the presence of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus. E.g. Pavlov’s bell could be changed in tone and volume and still produce the same response. Similarly, in the Little Albert study, his fear was generalised to objects similar to a white rat (the conditioned stimulus) such as white dogs or rabbits.
What is discrimination?
There will come a point where objects similar to the conditioned stimulus become too different and cannot produce the conditioned response. E.g. Little Albert was not afraid of everything white and furry, such as Watson’s beard
What is operant conditioning?
Learning through consequence – Skinner (1953) suggested that learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate based on their environment. Behaviour is shaped by consequences, which may take the form of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment
What is positive reinforcement?
Where a behaviour is reinforced or encouraged by receiving a reward when the behaviour is performed e.g. getting to go to bed later because you cleaned up all your toys. This increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated
What is negative reinforcement?
Where a behaviour is reinforced or encouraged by avoiding a negative consequence when the behaviour is performed e.g. not being shouted at by a parent because you cleaned up your toys. This increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.
What is punishment?
Where a behaviour is discouraged by receiving a negative consequence for performing the behaviour e.g. being given a detention for not doing your homework. This decreases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated
What was Skinner’s research?
Skinner placed individual rats and pigeons in specially designed ‘skinner boxes’. These cages were fitted with a lever in the case of rats, or a button in the case of pigeons. When the rat pushed the lever, or the pigeon pecked the button, a food pellet would enter the cage. Over several instances of this happening, the pigeons and rats continued to perform this behaviour. This demonstrates positive reinforcement, where the animal is rewarded for pushing the lever, leading to pushing the lever becoming a conditioned behaviour
Skinner also demonstrated how rats and pigeons could be conditioned to push the lever or peck the button to avoid the negative consequence of getting a minor electric shock. This demonstrates negative reinforcement.
How can conditioning be linked to gambling?
Skinner found that the conditioned behaviour of pushing the lever in order to receive food pellets died out when the animal was satiated. It was revealed that a variable ratio situation prolonged the behaviour and limited the risk of extinction – that is to say, rewarding the animal with a food pellet only after a variable number of responses are performed e.g. a food pellet is given after every 10th , 15th push.
The idea that unpredictability of rewards prolongs behaviour has been applied to gambling. Gambling often does not ‘pay out’ in a predictable fashion – someone betting on a horse race may win on one race, but then not win for several more. However they continue to gamble in the hopes of a reward/positive consequence
Gambling can also be linked to classical conditioning and learning by association. Winning may be associated with an adrenaline rush that occurs every time this happens. The bleeps and buzzes that happen when you ‘win’ at gambling e.g. on a fruits machine may create an intrinsically rewarding mini-universe which the gambler comes to associate with pleasure and excitement. The sounds of gambling may produce a pleasure response, even without winning
What is a strength of the behaviourist approach - well controlled?
Behaviourists focus on the measurement of observable behaviour in highly controlled lab settings. By breaking down behaviour into stimulus-response units, extraneous variables can be removed, allowing cause and effect relationships to be established. This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility.
What is a counterargument to the ‘well controlled’ argument?
This approach may mean that behaviourists have oversimplified the learning process. By reducing behaviour to simple components, behaviourists may have discounted the impact of human thought. Approaches such as Social Learning Theory and the Cognitive approach, on the other hand, draw attention to the mental processes involved in learning. This suggests that learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone – private mental processes are also essential
What is a limitation of the behaviourist approach - environmental determinism?
The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as being conditioned by past conditioning experiences. Skinner suggested that everything we do is the product of our reinforcement history. The idea that our past history dictates all our decisions and their outcomes ignores the influence of free will – which Skinner described as an illusion. This is an extreme position, and ignores the influence of conscious decision-making processes on behaviour.
What is a strength of the behaviourist approach - real world application?
The principles of conditioning can be applied to real-world behaviours and problems. For example, operant conditioning forms the basis of token economy systems used in prisons and psychiatric wards. Classical conditioning has been applied to systematic desensitisation. This increases the value of the behaviourist approach, as it has widespread application.
What is a limitation of the behaviourist approach - ethical concerns?
The rats and pigeons in Skinners research were housed in harsh, cramped conditions and deliberately kept below their natural weight so that they were always hungry. Many have questioned the ethics of such treatments, and the study as a whole
Outline Social Learning Theory
An explanation for behaviour proposed by Bandura, which suggests that learning of behaviour occurs both directly – through classical and operant conditioning – and indirectly, through the observation and imitation of others.
What is Vicarious reinforcement?
A type of indirect learning where an individual observes someone else performing a behaviour and sees it being rewarded, and is therefore more likely to imitate it themselves.
What is imitation?
Copying the behaviour of others
What are the 4 mediational processes outlined by Bandura?
. Mediational processes are cognitive processes which intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new behaviour is acquired.
According to Bandura, the 4 mediational processes are:
. Attention - The extent to which we notice a behaviour
. Retention - Whether a behaviour is remembered
. Motor reproduction - The ability to replicate this behaviour
. Motivation - The will to replicate a behaviour - often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
. Attention and Retention relate to the learning of a behaviour, motor reproduction and motivation relate to the performance
. Learning and performance don’t need to occur at the same time - a behaviour may be learned at one point, but not be performed until much later.
What is Identification?
Where someone identifies with and desires to be associated with a particular group or individual because they are seen to possess desirable characteristics, are attractive and have high status and/or because they possess similar characteristics to the observer. People – especially children – are more likely to imitate someone they identify with. Role models do not necessarily have to be physically present.
What is modelling?
Imitating the behaviour of a role model.
Modelling can also refer to the behaviour of the role model themself
What was Bandura et.al (1961)?
The study featured two conditions: children who observed an adult behaving non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll, and children who observed an adult behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll. The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it.
Later, when the children were observed playing with a bobo doll, those in the aggressive condition were seen to behave much more aggressively towards the doll than those who had observed the non-aggressive adult.
This illustrates the role of observational learning and imitation
What was Bandura and Walter (1963)?
The study featured 3 conditions
1 – children observed an adult behave aggressively towards a bobo doll, and then observed the adult be praised for this behaviour
2 – children observed an adult behaving aggressively towards a bobo doll, and then observed the adult be punished for this
3 – control group – children observed the adult behaving aggressively towards a bobo doll with no consequence
When given their own Bobo doll, the children in the reinforcement condition showed the most aggression towards the doll, followed by the control condition, and then the punishment condition.
This illustrates the role of vicarious reinforcement in learning
What is a strength of Social Learning Theory - cognitive factors?
The behaviourist approach recognises the importance of cognitive factors. Neither classical nor operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own. Humans and animals observe and make judgements about the behaviour of others which they use to decide when an action is appropriate - something the behavourist approach doesn’t consider. This suggests SLT is a more comprehensive explanation for human learning as it recognises the role of mediational processes
What is a counterpoint to the cognitive factors argument - social learning theory?
SLT has been criticised for making too little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning. Bandura suggested that while biological differences influenced our learning potential, learning itself is determined by our environment. However recent research suggests that observational learning could be the result of mirror neurons in the brain, which allow us to empathise with and imitate other people.
What is a limitation of Social Learning Theory - contrived lab studies?
Bandura’s ideas were developed through the observation of young children in labs. Lab studies are often criticised for their contrived nature - can lead to demand characteristics. It has been suggested that because the main purpose of a bobo doll is to hit it children were acting as they thought they were expected to, rather than modelling behaviour. Therefore the research has reduced internal validity.
What is a strength of social learning theory - real-world application?
SLT principles have been applied to a range of real world behaviours, and can explain cultural differences in behaviour. Principles such as modelling, imitation and reinforcement can account for how children learn from other people and the media - this can explain how social norms are transmitted through particular societies. As such, the approach can account for real-world behaviour
What is a strength of Social Learning Theory - Reciprocal determinism -
Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism, arguing that we are not merely influenced by our environment, but also exert an influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform. This suggests that there is an element of free will in how we choose to behave, contrasting with the behaviourist approach which denies the possibility of free will.
Outline the cognitive approach:
An explanation of human behaviour which highlights the role of internal mental processes (e.g. thoughts, perception, attention), arguing that they can and should be studied scientifically. These internal mental processes are ‘private’ and cannot be observed. Therefore, cognitive psychologists study them indirectly, by making inferences about the internal workings of individuals minds based on their outward behaviours.
