Relations with Indigenous Peoples 1947-67

Question 1

What were the common factors propelling nationalist/independence movements across the colonies after WW2 (5)?

Answer 1

1) The legacy of WW2.
2) Economic and social discontent.
3) Ethnic and religious rivalries.
4) Charismatic and Western-educated leaders.
5) Mass political parties.

Question 2

How did the legacy of WW2 propel nationalist/independence movements across the colonies?

Answer 2

Parts of the Middle-East/North Africa served as a theatre of war, whilst some Asian colonies were occupied by the Japanese (e.g. Singapore). The colonies contributed millions of troops to WW2, many dying or being taken prisoner. Many felt that independence was deserved, and Britain’s seeming reluctance to decolonise in the early-mid 1940s brough impatience and disillusionment.

Question 3

How did economic and social discontent propel nationalist/independence movements across the colonies?

Answer 3

Despite post-war development of the colonies, most locals had not been trained sufficiently to benefit from the job opportunities, with some developments coming at the expense of traditional farming and employment. In some areas, foreigners and locals competed for land, whilst in some areas there was a surplus of educated youths unwilling to perform manual labour (e.g. in the Gold Coast). Furthermore, when British projects failed, e.g. the Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme, it was the locals who suffered.

Question 4

How did ethnic and religious tensions propel nationalist/independence movements across the colonies?

Answer 4

Some ethnic groups felt discriminated against when the British favoured other groups in running a colonial government. This flared ethnic tensions, and anti-British sentiment. E.g. British acceptance that ‘Malay nationality’ be restricted to those of Malay ethnicity in 1949. This encouraged the Chinese population to support nationalist attacks on Europeans.

Question 5

How did charismatic and Western-educated leaders propel nationalist/independence movements across the colonies?

Answer 5

Key figures were able to unite different ethnic groups behind the drive for independence. E.g. Nkrumah (Gold Coast), Azikiwe (Nigeria), Lee Kuan Yew (Singapore), Aung San (Burma) and Kaunda (Zambia). These leaders were educated in Western schools, with many travelling to Europe or the USA, learning of liberalism, Marxism and socialism, enabling them to articulate their views in a Western-style way.

Question 6

How did mass political parties propel nationalist/independence movements across the colonies?

Answer 6

By showing that a movement had a strong, organised and mass following, leaders were able to put Britain in a difficult position. Seeing themselves as a strong proponent for democracy, they were forced to make concessions. E.g. the CPP (Gold Coast), AFPFL (Burma), ANC in Rhodesia and South Africa, and the MCA in Malaya.

Question 7

What was the Mau Mau?

Answer 7

A Kenyan movement largely confined to the Kikuyu people.

Question 8

What was the 3 main causes of the Mau Mau rebellion?

Answer 8

1) The Kikuyu had found themselves increasingly pushed off their land in the fertile ‘White Highlands’ to make room for white settlers. The Kikuyu were sent to reservation lands, which were inadequate, and evictions were often violent. The Kikuyu people were angry, especially the amongst the young, poor, and landless.
2) Sir Philip Mitchell, Governor of Kenya, announced in 1948 that self-government was not possible in the near future, fuelling the frustration of black Kenyans.
3) In 1952, the Mau Mau murdered increasingly (white farmers or fellow Kikuyu, many Christian, who refused to take the Mau Mau oath). Chief Kungu of the kikuyu spoke out, but was assassinated in October 1952. White settlers panicked when reports came out of Mau Mau oaths of allegiance in armed insurrection against Britain, many demanding a brutal British reprisal.

Question 9

Who was Sir Evelyn Baring (Jr)?

Answer 9

The younger son of Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer. Baring served as Governor of Rhodesia 1942-44, and then Governor of Kenya 1952-59.

Question 10

How did Britain combat the Mau Mau insurgency (3)?

Answer 10

1) Baring declared a State of Emergency in 1952, suspending all black political rights, and the Mau Mau were treated as political terrorists. Britain sent 1000s of troops to stomp out the insurgency.
2) Britain used a ‘home guard’ of loyal Kikuyu alongside British troops, accompanied by helicopters and planes. Kikuyu villages were uprooted by British soldiers and relocated, eventually cornering the Mau Mau in the forests below Mount Kenya, destroying them.
3) Britain hanged suspects on the least excuse, and placed 1000s in ‘rehabilitation camps’, where they were tortured and interrogated to identify Mau Mau sympathisers.

Question 11

How many died, and how many were detained, in the Mau Mau rebellion (2)?

Answer 11

1) Official figures state that 1952-56: 11-12,000 killed, and 81,000 detained.
2) Historians think this is higher, with Anderson estimating a death toll of 25,000, and Elkins believing 130-300,000 were unaccounted for.

Question 12

What were the Hola Camp atrocities of 1959?

Answer 12

The Hola Camp (Kenya) housed Mau Mau prisoners who would not relinquish their oath. The commandant chose 88 prisoners to undertake manual labour or join rehabilitation schemes, but they refused. 11 were beaten to death, with 77 suffering severe injuries. It was officially reported as due to contaminated water, until an examining doctor discovered the truth.

Question 13

What was the significance of the Mau Mau rebellion on Britain (2)?

Answer 13

1) The Mau Mau rebellion lasted 5 years, showing colonial governments were poorly equipped to combat armed insurrection on a large scale.
2) It showed that Britain had to use force to impose their will on a majority black population.

Question 14

How was the Malayan path to independence complicated in 1949?

Answer 14

Racial tensions were fuelled by Britain’s stance that ‘Malay nationality’ be restricted to those of Malay ethnicity in 1949. This angered the non-Malays, especially the Chinese.

Question 15

Why did Britain cooperate with the UMNO during the Malayan emergency (3)?

Answer 15

1) The UMNO offered a plan of action, e.g. extending private schooling.
2) The UMNO was ready to comabtt the militant independence movements, such as the Malayan Races Liberation Army (MRLA) and the MCP.
3) Britain did not want Communism to spread, with many Chinese-Malaysians encouraged by the spread of Communism in China.

Question 16

Explain the assassination of Sir Henry Gurney (High Commissioner of Malaya) in 1951.

Answer 16

In October 1951, Gurney’s convoy, including his Rolls-Royce, a police van and an armoured scout car, were shot at by 38 MCP guerrillas. Gurney was injured, and was assassinated as he left his car.

Question 17

How did Britain regain stability in Malaya 1955-57?

Answer 17

Britain depended on the local indigenous elite, offering the promise of self-government. Malaya eventually gained independence in August 1957.

Question 18

Why was Britain concerned about Malaya in the 1950s (3)?

Answer 18

1) Malaya was a valuable economic resource, due to the tin and rubber industry, magnified by the dollar value of rubber.
2) Malaya was a prime strategic asset for Britain in Asia.
3) Britain feared the spread of Communism, following the announcement of the PRC in 1949.

Question 19

How was Nigeria ethnically divided (4)?

Answer 19

1) The north was an Islamic area under emirs, with nationalist and anti-Western sentiment, dominated by the Hausa and Fulani peoples.
2) The west was economically advanced, seeking independent control, dominated by the Yoruba peoples.
3) The east was dominated by the Igbo peoples.
4) The south contained European influences, professional organisations of teachers, lawyers, etc. and independent Christian Churches. Nationalism was still prominent here. The main ethic group here was the Igbo peoples.

Question 20

Who were the 3 main nationalist independence parties in Nigeria?

Answer 20

1) The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC).
2) The Action Group.
3) The Northern People’s Congress (NPC).

Question 21

What was the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)?

Answer 21

The party with the widest appeal, under Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe, who owned many newspapers to argue the nationalist cause. It was dominated by the Igbo.

Question 22

What was the Action Group?

Answer 22

Dominated by the Yoruba, and representing the relatively economically advanced western regions, the AG sought autonomous states within a federal structure.

Question 23

What was the Northern People’s Congress (NPC)?

Answer 23

Dominated by the Hausa and Fulani ethnic groups, and led by Western-educated northern Muslims, they wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. The NPC was not as popular due to peasant dissatisfaction, and rivalry amongst Muslim factions.

Question 24

How did ethnic rivalry in Nigeria escalate 1946-54 (3)?

Answer 24

1) Southern political activists sought self-government to promote educational and economic development, but the northern emirs demanded full control over economic and political change.
2) The Yoruba and Igbo both competed for control.
3) As Britain granted more power to local officials and politicians, they rivalled one another over government jobs, government contracts, local development funds, market permits, trade licenses, etc.

Question 25

When did the Southern, Western, Eastern and Northern regions of Nigeria gain self-governing status?

Answer 25

The Southern, Western and Eastern regions gained formal self governing status in 1957, and the Northern region in 1959.

Question 26

Why were there ethnic tensions in Southern and Northern Rhodesia before 1953 (3)?

Answer 26

1) In both Rhodesia’s there was black resentment at low pay and few rights, intensified by the increase in white settlers post-WW2.
2) The 129,000 white settlers, many being wealthy farmers, of Southern Rhodesia had gained self-government in 1923, and aimed to preserve white power.
3) The 36,000 white settlers of Northern Rhodesia, many involved in the copper mining industry, wanted white control, despite its status as a protectorate.

Question 27

What was the significance of the creation of the CAF for ethnic tensions in Nyasaland and Northern and Southern Rhodesia?

Answer 27

Britain feared a situation where Southern Rhodesia would extend their influence North, and created a CAF with both Northern and Southern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland. They also hoped it would protect Africans from the discriminatory Southern Rhodesian laws. However the Southern whites tried to use the CAF to cement their position, and tried to give the Northern whites the same political power. Nyasaland was left alone, with few white people, therefore resisting the CAF in 1953.

Question 28

How were the Southern Rhodesian laws discriminatory in regards to voting c1953?

Answer 28

It allowed black people to vote, but only if they met certain education and property requirements, which few had.

Question 29

Who was Dr Hastings Banda?

Answer 29

Born in Nyasaland and educated by Western missionaries, he returned from London to Kenya in 1959, involving himself politically. He became Prime Minister in 1963, and President from 1966 to 1994.

Question 30

What was the Nkata Bay incident, March 1959?

Answer 30

Prisoners detained in Northern Rhodesia were waiting in Nkata Bay for a lake steamer to take them to the South. A local Congress leader tried to secure their release, and encouraged a large crowd to gather at the dockside. The District Commissioner, fearing the situation was out of control, ordered troops to open fire on the crowds. 20 died.

Question 31

Why did Sir Robert Armitage declare a State of Emergency in Nyasaland in 1959?

Answer 31

Black African nationalist congress parties emerged in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, with Dr Hastings Banda returning to Nyasaland to lead a campaign to end the CAF. Fearing the collapse of British authority, Sir Robert Armitage, Governor of Nyasaland declared a State of Emergency.

Question 32

What was the effect of the State of Emergency in Nyasaland 1959 on black activists (3)?

Answer 32

1) The Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) was banned, and its leaders, including Hastings Banda and Kenneth Kaunda, were imprisoned.
2) Around 1300 people, many members of congress parties were detained without trial, with over 2000 imprisoned for offenses relating to the Emergency.
3) Reinforcements from Northern and Southern Rhodesia were used to round up activists, with 51 killed by troops or police, including 20 in the Nkata Bay incident.

Question 33

Who was Kenneth Kaunda?

Answer 33

In 1953, he became secretary-general of the ANC in Northern Rhodesia, and founded the Zambian African National Congress (ZANC) in 1958. He led Zambia (Northern Rhodesia) to independence, becoming their President 1964-91.

Question 34

What did the Devlin Commission of 1959 conclude in regards to Nyasaland?

Answer 34

It denounced Nyasaland for using illegal and unnecessary force, concluding the State of Emergency was an overreaction.

Question 35

When was the CAF dissolved, and what happened to each of the 3 colonies?

Answer 35

1) Northern Rhodesia became Zambia (with provision for the emergence of a Black African majority government) and a member of the Commonwealth.
2) Nyasaland became Malawi, with a black majority rule and as a member of the Commonwealth.
3) Southern Rhodesia retained a white-dominated government, and in 1965 declared a UDI as ‘Rhodesia’.

Question 36

What is a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI)?

Answer 36

A declaration of independence from imperial rule without the normal two sided negotiations and legal proceedings expected to establish this.

Question 37

Who was Ian Smith?

Answer 37

A MP in Southern Rhodesia and a supporter of the CAF in 1953. When this broke down, he helped form the Rhodesian Front Party (RF). He became Prime Minister in 1964, issuing a UDI in 1965, and staying in power until 1979, refusing to compromise.

Question 38

What was the White Rhodesian Front?

Answer 38

A hard-line white settler movement dominated by Ian Smith in Southern Rhodesia. The RF rejected British demand for majority rule or any form of shared white/black power as the price of independence. The RF could do this as they had their own small army. The RF imprisoned many black nationalists.

Question 39

When did Ian Smith declare a UDI as ‘Rhodesia’?

Answer 39

11 November 1965.

Question 40

What was the significance of Smith’s UDI to Britain (5)?

Answer 40

1) The UDI was rejected as illegal and unconstitutional by Britain, the UN, and most of the world. Britain imposed sanctions, but they were ineffective, as South Africa refused to cooperate.
2) It proved Britain’s ineffectiveness, whilst claiming a world role, it was unable to deal with rebels in its ex colony.
3) Britain was criticised by the Commonwealth, accusing them of betraying Commonwealth ideals.
4) The UDI triggered a 15 year long civil war between white people and black nationalists in Smith’s Rhodesia.
5) Eventually black African majority rule was established, and Rhodesia became Zimbabwe in 1980, the last British African colony to gain independence.