Clinical [Personality + Clinical Psychology] (Psychology Subject) Flashcards
Psychoanalytic theory
- ORIGINATOR: Sigmund Freud
- views conflict as central to human nature
- conflict between different drives (conscious and unconscious) vying for expression
- individual motivated by drive reduction
- true conflict between Eros (the life instinct, including sex and love) and Thanatos (the death instinct, including self-destructive behavior)
- idea of unconscious mental life his greatest contribution to psychology
- revised model of mental life was structural; mental life has particular organization other than layers
— Ego: part of the mind that mediates between environment and pressures of the id and superego
— Id: contains the unconscious biological drives and wishes; with development, also includes unconscious wishes
— Superego: imposes learned or socialized drives; not born, but develops; inflicted by moral and parental training - an individual’s mental life a constant push-pull between competing forces of the id, superego, and environment
- ABNORMAL THEORY: conditions a result of repressed drives and conflicts; pathological behavior, dreams, and unconscious behavior all symptoms of underlying, unresolved conflict, which are manifested when ego does not find ways to express conflict (psychic determinism)
- THERAPY: psychoanalysis, or “analysis”, is a unique form of psychotherapy; free association technique (developed with Joseph Breuer) is the central process in which a patient reports thoughts without guidance (catharsis or abreaction); transference (patients react to therapist like they’re the parents); countertransference (how a therapist feels about their patient); object relations therapy (therapist uses patient’s transference to help resolve problems resulting from previous relationships by correcting emotional experience)
- GOAL: lessen unconscious pressures by making much of the material conscious as possible; allowing ego to be a better mediator of forces
- CRITICISMS: single case studies of women; not a scientific method
Aggression
*a central force in humans that must find a socially acceptable outlet
Defense mechanism
*a way in which the ego protects itself from threatening unconscious material/environmental forces
- Repression/denial (not allowing threatening material into awareness)
- Rationalization (justifying/rationalizing behavior/feelings that cause guilt)
- Projection (accusing others of having one’s own unacceptable feelings)
- Displacement (shifting unacceptable feelings/actions to a less threatening recipient)
- Reaction formation (embracing feelings/behaviors opposite to the true threatening feelings that one has)
- Compensation (excelling in one area to make up for shortcomings in another)
- Sublimation (channeling threatening drives into acceptable outlets)
- Identification (imitating a central figure in one’s life)
- Undoing (performing an often ritualistic activity to relieve anxiety about unconscious drives)
- Countertransference (an analyst’s transfer of unconscious feelings/wishes, often about central figures in analyst’s life, onto the patient
- Dreams (safe outlets for unconscious material/wish-fulfillment)
— Manifest content (the actual content of the dream)
— Latent content (the unconscious forces the dreams are trying to express)
Pleasure principle
- also known as primary process
- human motivation to seek pleasure and avoid pain
- principle by which the id operates
Reality principle
- also known as secondary process
- guided by ego and responds to demands of environment by delaying gratification
Screen memory
*memories that serve as representations of important childhood experiences
Individual theory
ORIGINATOR: Alfred Adler
- Adlerian theory
- people viewed as creative, social, and whole
- people in the process of “becoming” or realizing themselves
- individual motivated by social needs and feelings of inferiority that arise when current self doesn’t match self-ideal
- individual has “will to power”
- healthy individual will pursue goals that are outside of himself and beneficial to society
ABNORMAL THEORY: individual too affected by inferior feelings to pursue the will to power; “yes, but” mentality, self-serving and egotistical goals
THERAPY: psychodynamic approach; examine motivations, perceptions, goals, and resources
GOAL: reduce feelings of inferiority and foster social interest and social contribution
CRITICISMS: best used with “normal” people in search of growth
Ruling-dominant type (choleric)
*high in activity but low in social contribution; dominant
Getting-leaning type (phlegmatic)
*low in activity and high in social contribution; dependent
Avoiding type (melancholic)
*low in activity and low in social contribution; withdrawn
Socially useful type (sanguine)
*high in activity and high in social contribution; healthy
Analytical theory
ORIGINATOR: Carl Gustav Jung
- the psyche directed toward life and awareness
— contains conscious and unconscious elements
—- personal unconscious: material from an individual’s own experiences; this can become conscious
—- collective unconscious: dynamics of the psyche inherited from ancestors; common to all people and contains the archetypes
- archetypes: allow us to organize our experiences with consistent themes and indicated by cross-cultural similarity in symbols, folklore, and myths
ABNORMAL THEORY: psychopathology is a signal that something is wrong in the makeup of the psyche; provides clues to how one can become more aware
THERAPY: psychodynamic; unconscious material explored through analysis of individual’s dreams, artwork, and personal symbols
GOAL: use unconscious messages to become more aware and closer to full potential
CRITICISMS: too mystical or spiritual
Common archetypes
- persona: a person’s outer mask, the mediator to the external world
- shadow: a person’s dark side, often projected onto others
- anima: the female elements that a man possesses
- animus: the male elements that a female possesses
- self: the full individual potential, symbolized by the mandala
Client-centered theory
ORIGINATOR: Carl Rogers
- person-centered or Rogerian theory
- humanistic; optimistic outlook on human nature
- individuals have actualizing tendency that can direct them out of conflict and toward their full potential; best accomplished in an atmosphere that fosters growth
ABNORMAL THEORY: lacking congruence between real selves and conscious self-concept develop psychological tension
THERAPY: person-centered therapy; therapist is nondirective and provides empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness/congruence
GOAL: providing a trusting atmosphere for client to engage in self-directed growth; evidence of growth includes a congruent self-concept, positive self-regard, internal locus-of-evauluation, and willingness to experience
CRITICISMS: Rogers didn’t use diagnostic tools, believing client-centered therapy applied to any psychological problem
Behavior therapy
ORIGINATORS: B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, Joseph Wolpe
- application of classical and operant conditioning principles to human abnormal behavior; based on learning
- radical behavioralism associated with Skinner’s operant ideas that behavior is related only to consequences
- neobehavioralism uses Pavlov’s classical counter conditioning principles to create new responses to stimuli
ABNORMAL THEORY: abnormal behavior the result of learning
THERAPY: behavior therapy short-term & directed; thoughts, feelings, unconscious motivations not relevant; counterconditioning techniques
GOAL: to change behavior in the desired or adaptive direction; successful in treating phobias, fetishes, OCD, sexual problems, and childhood disorders
CRITICISMS: treats symptoms rather than underlying problem
Common behavior therapy techniques
- systematic desensitization: patient exposed to anxiety-provoking stimuli until the anxiety associated with stimuli is decreased; classical conditioning; developed by Joseph Wolpe
- flooding/implosive therapy: client repeatedly exposed to an anxiety-producing stimulus, so that, eventually, the overexposure leads to lessened anxiety; classical conditioning
- aversion therapy: uses classical conditioning to increase anxiety; an anxiety-reaction created where there previously was none; classical conditioning
- shaping: client is reinforced for behaviors that come closer to the desired action; operant conditioning
- modeling: exposes client to more adaptive behaviors; social learning principles
- assertiveness training: provides tools and experience through which the client can become more assertive
- role playing: allows client to practice new behaviors and responses
Cognitive theory
ORIGINATOR: Aaron Beck
- gives conscious thought patterns the starring role in people’s lives
- the way a person interprets experience, rather than the experience itself
ABNORMAL THEORY: maladaptive cognitions lead to abnormal behavior/disturbed affect
- a cognitive triad (negative views about the self, world, and future) causes depression
- Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) measures views and gauges the severity of diagnosed depression
THERAPY: directed therapy helps expose/restructure maladaptive thought and reasoning patterns; short-term therapy; therapist focuses on tangible evidence of the client’s logic
GOAL: to correct maladaptive cognitions
CRITICISMS: addresses how a person thinks, rather than why the thought patterns initially developed
Existing maladaptive cognitions
- arbitrary inference: drawing a conclusion without solid evidence
- overgeneralization: mistaking isolated incidents for the norm
- magnifying/minimizing: making too much/too little of something
- personalizing: inappropriately taking responsibility
- dichotomous thinking: black-and-white thinking
Rational-emotive theory
ORIGINATOR: Albert Ellis
- rational-emotive theory (RET) includes elements of cognitive, behavioral, and emotion theory
- intertwined thoughts and feelings produce behavior
ABNORMAL THEORY: psychological tension is created when an activating events occurs (A), and a client applies certain beliefs about the event (B), leading to the consequence of emotional disruption (C)
THERAPY: highly directive; therapist leads client to dispute (D) irrational beliefs
GOAL: effective rational beliefs to replace previous self-defeating ones; then a client’s’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors can coexist
CRITICISMS: too sterile and mechanistic
Gestalt theory
ORIGINATORS: Fritz Perls, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka
- encourages to stand apart from beliefs, biases, and attitudes derived from past
- goal is to fully experience and perceive the present in order to become whole and integrated
ABNORMAL THEORY: abnormal behavior derived from disturbances of awareness; patient may not have insight or fully experience present situation
THERAPY: therapist engages in dialogue; focus on the here-and-now experience
GOAL: exploration of awareness and full experiencing of the present
CRITICISMS: not suited for low-functioning or disturbed clients
Existential theory
ORIGINATOR: Victor Frankl
- a person’s greatest struggles are those of being vs. nonbeing and meaningfulness vs. meaninglessness
- individual constantly striving to rise above a simple behavioral existence and toward a genuine/meaningful existence; “will to meaning”
- Rollo May a major contributor
ABNORMAL THEORY: response to perceived meaninglessness in life is neurosis or neurotic anxiety
THERAPY: talking therapy with deep questions relating to client’s perception/meaning of existence
GOAL: increase a client’s sense of being and meaningfulness
CRITICISMS: too abstract for severely disturbed individuals
Psychopharmacology
*use of medication to treat mental illness
ABNORMAL THEORY: some emotional disturbances partially caused by biological factors
THERAPY: treatments aim to affect neurotransmitters
GOAL: providing relief from symptoms of psychopathology
CRITICISMS: drugs take away symptoms, don’t provide interpersonal support; drugs don’t work on everyone, so psychopharmacologies and patients must experiment to find effective drugs; drugs have tons of side effects and can cause withdrawal symptoms after treatment ceases
“Psychopharm” treatments
- antipsychotics
— used to treat positive symptoms of schizophrenia
— blocks dopamine receptors and inhibiting dopamine production
— chlorpromazine and haloperidol - antimanics
— manages bipolar disorder
— inhibit monoamines (norepinephrine and serotonin) based on the theory that mania results from excessive monoamines
— includes lithium, anti-psychotics, and anti-convulsants - antidepressants
— reduces depressive symptoms by increasing availability of neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine)
— increases production and transmission of various monoamines
— Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) have tricyclic chemical structure [amitriptyline]
— Monoamines oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) [phenelzine]
— Selective serotonin reputable inhibitors (SSRIs) act only on serotonin; most frequently prescribed antidepressants because fewer side effects than TCAs and MAOIs [fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline] - anxiolytics
— reduce anxiety or to induce sleep
— increases the effectiveness of GABA
— high potential for habituation and addiction
— barbiturates, benzodiazepines - antabuse
— changes the metabolism of alcohol, resulting in severe nausea and vomiting when combined
— used to countercondition alcoholics
Hans Eysenck
- criticized effectiveness of psychotherapy after analyzing studies indicating psychotherapy was no more successful than no treatment at all
Anna Freud
- applied Freudian ideas to child psychology and development
Melanie Klein
- pioneered object-relations theory and psychoanalysis with children
Neo-Freudians
*accept some of Freud’s ideas and reject others
- Karen Horney
— emphasized culture and society over instinct
— neuroticism expressed as movement toward, against, and away from people
- Harry Stack Sullivan
— emphasized social and interpersonal relationships
Psychodynamic theory
*a general term that refers to theories (i.e., analytical, individual) that emphasize the role of the unconscious
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
*employs principles from cognitive and behavioral theory
Humanistic theory
*a general term that refers to theories that emphasize positive, evolving free will in people
- client-centered, Gestalt, or existential
- optimistic about human nature
- the “Third Force” in psychotherapy in reaction to psychoanalysis and behavioralism
Abraham Maslow
- leader of the humanistic movement
- hierarchy of needs
— humans start at the bottom and work their way up toward self-actualization by satisfying the needs at the previous level
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
(Top to bottom)
- self-actualization
- esteem and recognition
- belonging, love, acceptance
- safety, security, stability, lack of fear
- physiological needs, hunger, thirst, shelter, warmth
Play therapy
- used with child clients
- during play, child may convey emotions, situations, or disturbances that might otherwise go unexpressed
Electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT)
*delivers electric current to the brain and induces convulsions
- effective intervention for severely depressed patients
Family therapy
*treats a family together and views the whole family as the client
Stress-inoculation training
- developed by Donald Meichenbaum
- prepares people for foreseeable stressors
Neil Miller
- proved experimentally that abnormal behavior can be learned
Evidence-based treatment
*treatment for mental health problems that’s been shown to produce results in empirical research studies
Applied psychology
*branch of psychology that uses principles or research findings to solve people’s problems
Abnormal psychology
*the study of behavior that is deemed not normal
Primary prevention
*involves attempts to prevent documented psychosocial problems through direct contact with an at-risk (but thus far unaffected) group
- executed through proactive intervention (intervention takes place before the problems arise rather than a result of the problems)
- D.A.R.E and Head Start
Culturally competent
*interventions refer to treatment or prevention programs that recognize and are tailored to cultural differences
- cultural competence: learning the language, customs, and norms of various cultures
Community psychology
*a model in which psychology is taken into the community via community centers or schools
- emphasizes respect and recognizes the logistics that keep the neediest people from seeking help
Personality
*the study of why people act the way that they do and why different people act differently
Clinical psychology
*the study of the theory, assessment, and treatment of mental and emotional disorders
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5)
*includes various categories of mental disorders, the diagnostic criteria for the various disorders included in each category, and official numerical codes assigned to each disorder
Psychological disorders
*involves thoughts, feelings, or behaviors not in keeping with social norms and are severe enough to cause personal distress and/or impairment to functioning
Intellectual disability
*adaptive functioning deficits
Learning disorders
*school achievement or standardized scores at least two standard deviations below the mean for the appropriate age and IQ
