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Intro to Psychology (IWCC) > chapter 2: biology and psychology > Flashcards

chapter 2: biology and psychology Flashcards

1
Q

neurons are

A

neurons are specialized cells of the nervous system that conduct impulses. they send messages. vary according to function and location

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2
Q

what does the nucleus use and what does it produce

A

the nucleus of a neuron uses oxygen and nutrients to generate the energy needed to carry out the work of the cell.

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3
Q

glial cells

A
  • Remove dead neurons and waste products
    – Nourish and insulate neurons
    – Form myelin and play a role in neural
    transmission of messages
    – Increase with the development of the nervous
    system
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4
Q

neurons include

A

Include a cell body, an axon, and
dendrites, myelin

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5
Q

myelin

A
  • Fat that insulates the axon from electrically
    charged atoms, or ions
    – Minimizes leakage of the electrical current
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6
Q

what do dendrites do

A

dendrites in a neuron receive incoming messages from other neurons.

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7
Q

the passage of messages through neuron until axon terminal

A

the messages enter the neuron through the dendrite and are passed through the axon, sent from the axon terminal.

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8
Q

where do neurotransmitters come from

A

neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal.

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9
Q

what happens as kids get older

A

as a child matures, the axons become longer and dendrites and terminals proliferate. the number of glial cells increases.

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10
Q

myelination

A

myelination is a part of the maturation process. this allows infants to engage in visual-motor coordination and other activities untill this process reaches a level.

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11
Q

multiple sclerosis

A

multiple sclerosis, myelin is replaced with a hard fibrous tissue that throws off the timing of nerve impulses and disrupts muscular control.

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12
Q

afferent neurons (sensory neurons)

A

receptors or sensory neurons that are near the surface of the skin.Transmit messages from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain

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13
Q

efferent neurons (motor neurons)

A

transmit messages from the brain/spinal cord to muscles and glands. Transmit messages from the brain or spinal cord to muscles and glands

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14
Q

luigi galvani (1737–1798))

A

conducted an experiemnt in a rainstorm with frogs and wires. he was able to demonstrate the message - neural impulses - that travel along neurons are ELECTROCHEMICAL in nature

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15
Q

neural impulses

A
  • Electrochemical messages that travel
    within neurons
  • Neurons contain negatively or positively
    charged ions
  • Difference in electrical charge polarizes a
    neuron for firing
    – Firing: Conduction of neural impulse along a
    neuron
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16
Q

polarization

A

to ready a neuron for firing by creating an internal negative charge in relation to the body fluid outside the cell membrane.

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17
Q

resting potential

A

the electrical potential across the neural membrane when is it not responding to other neurons

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18
Q

depolarized (positively charged)

A

to reduce the resting potential of a cell membrane from about 70 millivolts toward zero.

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19
Q

depolarization

A

when area on the resting neuron is stimulated

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20
Q

action potential

A

the electrical impulse that provides the basis for the conduction of a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron

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21
Q

neural impulse as it progesses

A

the strength does not change because it is being created anew as it progresses.

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22
Q

all-or-none principle

A

the fact that a neuron fires an impulse of the same strength whenever its action potential is triggered

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23
Q

threshold

A

strength of the incoming messages required by a neuron to fire

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24
Q

refractory period

A

a phase following firing during which a neuron is less sensitive to messages from other neurons and will not fire. “recovery” time

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25
Q

synapse

A

a junction between the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another neuron

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26
Q

synaptic cleft

A

fluid-filled gap between the axon terminal and dendrite

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27
Q

neurotransmitters

A

Chemical substances
* Present in the synaptic vesicles of axon
terminals
* Have unique chemical structures and fit
into specific receptor sites
– Loose neurotransmitters are either broken
down or reabsorbed by the axon terminal
(reuptake)
Excitatory and inhibitory functions
determine whether a neuron will fire
– Excite: Cause other neurons to fire
– Inhibit: Prevent other neurons from firing
* Involved in physical processes and
psychological processes
* Excess or deficiency is linked to
psychological disorders

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28
Q

receptor sites

A

Loose neurotransmitters are either broken
down or reabsorbed by the axon terminal
(reuptake)

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29
Q

excite and inhibit

A

Excite: cause other neurons to fire
inhibit: prevent other neurons from firing

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30
Q

types of neurotransmitters

A

Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Serotonin
Gamma-aminobutyric acid
Endorphins

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31
Q

effects of Acetylcholine (ACh)

A

Controls muscle contractions
– Affected by curare and botulism
* Cause paralysis
– Prevalent in the hippocampus
– Decrease of ACh in the brain impairs memory
formation

32
Q

The effects of dopamine

A
  • Affects the ability
    to perceive
    pleasure, voluntary
    movement, and
    learning and
    memory
    – Deficiencies are
    linked to
    Parkinson’s
    disease
33
Q

effects of norepinephrine

A

Excitatory neurotransmitter that increases heart rate
– Involved in general arousal, learning and memory, and
eating
– Excesses and deficiencies are linked to mood
disorders and impairment in memory formation

34
Q

effects of serotonin

A

Involved in emotional arousal and sleep
– Deficiencies are linked to eating disorders,
alcoholism, depression, aggression, and insomnia

35
Q

effects of Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter that may help calm
anxiety reactions
– Deficiency is linked to depression

36
Q

effects of endorphins

A
  • Inhibit pain and increase sense of competence
    – Enhance the functioning of the immune system
    – Connected to the pleasurable runner’s high
    – Similar to the narcotic morphine
37
Q

branches of peripheral nervous system

A

somatic nervous system
autonomic nervous system

38
Q

somatic nervous system

A

Messages received from the brain and spinal cord control purposeful body movements

39
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

– Regulates the glands and muscles of internal
organs
* Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
have largely opposing effects
– Effects can be averaged out to some degree when
stimulated simultaneously

40
Q

central nervous system

A

spinal cord, brain

41
Q

spinal cord

A

Transmits messages from sensory receptors
to the brain and from the brain to muscles and
glands
– Spinal reflex
* Involves only a sensory neuron and a motor
neuron in most instances
* Neural impulse is transmitted by interneurons from
the sensory neuron through the spinal cord to the
motor neuron in some reflexes
Spinal cord and brain contain gray matter
and white matter

42
Q

gray matter

A

consists of non-myelinated neurons

43
Q

white matter

A

consists of myelinated axons

44
Q

experimenting with the brain

A
  • allows us to asses damage from disease and accidents
    – includes Intentionally damaging parts of the brain in
    animals
    – we use electrical probes to stimulate parts of the
    brain
45
Q

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

A
  • Helps record the natural electrical activity of the
    brain
    – Detects brain waves that pass between the
    electrodes
46
Q

how is research done on the brain

A
  • by experimenting with the brain
  • electroencephalograph (EEG)
  • Brain imaging techniques
47
Q

Brain imaging techniques

A

– Computerized axial tomography (CAT or
CT scan)
– Positron emission tomography (PET scan)
– Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
– Functional MRI (fMRI)

48
Q

structures and functions of the brain: hindbrain

A

Hindbrain
– Medulla
– Pons
– Cerebellum
* Reticular formation
– Lower part is within the hindbrain
* Sends messages to the cerebral cortex when
stimulated
* Makes one alert to sensory information

49
Q

struzctures and functions of the brain: forebrain

A

– Thalamus: Relay station for sensory
stimulation
– Hypothalamus: Regulates body temperature,
concentration of fluid, storage of nutrients,
motivation, and emotion
* Involved in hunger, thirst, sexual behavior, caring for
offspring, and aggression
– Limbic system
* Amygdala: Connected with aggression, fear,
vigilance, emotions, learning, and memory

50
Q

structures and functions of the brain: cerebrum

A

Cerebrum: Responsible for thinking and
language
– Cerebral cortex: Surface of the cerebrum
* Wrinkled or convoluted with ridges and valleys
(fissures)
* Connected with cognitive abilities
– Corpus callosum
* Connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum
created by fissures

51
Q

the cerebral cortex

A

Outer layer of the cerebrum
* Involved in bodily activities, sensations,
and perceptions
* Hemispheres – Left and right lobes
– Occipital lobe deals with vision
– Temporal lobe deals with hearing and auditory
functions
– Parietal lobe contains the somatosensory
cortex
– Frontal lobe contains the motor cortex

52
Q

how thinking and language relate to the cerebral cortex

A

Association areas
– Not primarily involved in sensation or motor
activity
– Responsible for learning, thought, memory,
and language
* Association areas in the frontal lobe
– Responsible for executive functions
– Retrieves visual, auditory, and other
memories and manipulates them

Language functions
- Brain hemispheres mirror and differ in
function
– Left hemisphere contains language functions
for nearly all right-handed people
– If damaged before the age of 13, speech
functions can transfer to the right hemisphere
* Key language areas
– Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area
* Damage in either causes aphasia
Wernicke’s area
– Lies in the temporal lobe
– Wernicke’s aphasia: Impairs the ability to
comprehend speech and to think of words to
express one’s thoughts
* Angular gyrus
– Translates visual information into auditory
information
– Damages reading ability
Broca’s area
– Located in the frontal lobe
– Influences speech
– Broca’s aphasia: One is able to understand
language but speaks slowly and laboriously

53
Q

left brained or right brained

A
  • Left-brained individuals would be logical
    and intellectual
  • Right-brained individuals would be
    intuitive, creative, and emotional
  • Hemispheres do not act independently
    – Functions overlap and they respond
    simultaneously
54
Q

handedness

A
  • Left-handed
    – Have greater-than-average probability of
    language problems and certain health
    problems
    – More likely than right-handed people to be
    gifted artists, musicians, and mathematicians
  • Origins of handedness may be genetic
    – Being left-handed was once seen as a
    deficiency
  • Heritability makes about a 24%
    contribution to the likelihood of being right-
    or left-handed
55
Q

split brain experiments

A
  • People with severe cases of epilepsy may
    require split-brain operations
  • Similar to having two brains
    – Caused by the inability of one hemisphere to
    communicate with the other
56
Q

the endocrine system

A

Comprises ductless glands that release
hormones into the bloodstream
– Hormones
* Regulate growth, metabolism, and some behaviors
* Maintain steady bodily states
* Negative feedback loop – Gland is signaled to stop
when the right amount of a hormone has been
secreted

57
Q

pituitary gland

A
  • Lies below the hypothalamus
  • Labeled as the master gland
  • Secretes hormones that regulate the
    functioning of other glands
    – Growth hormone, prolactin, vasopressin, and
    oxytocin
  • Hypothalamus regulates pituitary activity
58
Q

pineal gland

A

Secretes melatonin that:
– Regulates sleep-wake cycle
– May affect the onset of puberty
– Connected with aging
– Acts as a mild sedative

59
Q

thyroid gland

A

Produces thyroxin that affects the body’s
metabolism
– Variation in levels can lead to:
* Hypothyroidism
* Hyperthyroidism
* Cretinism

60
Q

ardenal glands

A
  • Located above the kidneys
  • Comprise an outer layer (cortex) and an
    inner core (medulla)
  • Cortical steroids (corticosteroids)
    – Secreted by the adrenal cortex
  • Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and
    norepinephrine
    – Epinephrine has emotional and physical
    effects
61
Q

testes and ovaries

A
  • Testosterone
    – Produced by the testes (produced in small
    amounts by the adrenal gland)
    – Enables development of male sex
    characteristics
  • Estrogen and progesterone
    – Produced by the ovaries along with small
    amounts of testosterone
62
Q

Steroids

A

– Increase muscle mass
– Heighten resistance to stress
– Increase the body’s energy supply

63
Q

Anabolic steroids

A
  • Enhance athletic prowess
    – Outlawed in sports
    – Connected with self-confidence and
    aggressiveness
64
Q

darwins theory of evolution

A
  • Struggle for existence
    – Competition for same resources
    – Prosperity or extinction of a species is
    determined by natural selection
  • Natural variations and mutations lead to
    differences among individuals
    – Affect one’s ability to adapt to change
64
Q

Evolutionary Psychology

A
  • Studies the ways in which adaptation and
    natural selection are connected with
    mental processes and behavior
  • Behavior patterns evolve and can be
    transmitted genetically from generation to
    generation
    – Behavior patterns are called instinctive or
    species-specific behaviors
  • Instinct
    – Stereotyped patterns of behavior that are
    triggered in a specific situation
    – Species-specific
  • Resists modification or results in punishment
65
Q

Heredity

A

Biological transmission of traits from parent to
offspring through genes

65
Q

Genetics

A

– Subfield of biology that studies heredity
* Behavioral genetics: Focuses on the contributions
of genes to behavior

66
Q

Gene

A

– Basic unit of heredity
– Regulates the development of specific traits

67
Q

Chromosomes

A

– Made up of strings of genes
– Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
* Formed by DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
– Double helix: Contains the genetic code

  • One receives 23 chromosomes from each
    parent
  • 23rd pair of chromosomes are sex
    chromosomes
    – XX – Female
    – XY – Male
68
Q

genes and chromosomes

A
  • Human Genome Project
    – Sequencing of DNA consists of about three
    billion DNA sequences spread throughout
    one’s chromosomes
  • Extent of influence of genes on complex psychological traits are debated
  • Some traits are determined by a single
    pair of genes
    – Other traits are polygenic
69
Q

genotype

A

– Individual’s genetic makeup (nature)

70
Q

phenotype

A

Actual appearance, based on genotype and
environmental influences (nature and
nurture)

71
Q

down syndrome

A

Caused by chromosomal abnormality

72
Q

kinship studies

A
  • Focus on the presence of traits and
    behavior patterns in people who are or are
    not related biologically
  • Twin studies
    – Compare the presence of traits and behavior
    patterns in monozygotic twins, dizygotic
    twins, and other people
  • To determine the role of genetic factors
    – Show the strong influence of genetic factors
    on physical features
  • Adoption studies
    – Psychologists look for similarities between
    children and their adoptive and natural
    parents
73
Q

summary

A
  • The nervous system regulates the body
    through neurons that transmit information
  • Peripheral nervous system transmits
    messages to and from the central nervous
    system
  • The hindbrain includes the medulla, pons,
    and cerebellum
  • The forebrain includes the thalamus,
    hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum
  • Parts of the cerebral cortex are involved in
    bodily activities, thinking, and problem
    solving
  • Glands of the endocrine system secretes
    hormones that affect behavior and mental
    processes
  • Evolutionary psychology studies the concept
    of adaptation and natural selection

Intro to Psychology (IWCC) (2 decks)

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