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Anatomy > Chapter 1: Overview and Basic Concepts TB > Flashcards

Chapter 1: Overview and Basic Concepts TB Flashcards

1
Q

Regional Anatomy

A

-organization of the body into parts and then further subdivided into divisions
-emphasis on relationships of structures in these regions
-surface anatomy is important * -> palpable, visible, physical exam

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2
Q

Systemic Anatomy

A

-organized by organ system that work together to carry out function
-integumentary
-skeletal
-articular- joints/ligaments
-muscular
-nervous
-circulatory -> cardiovascular & lymphatic
-digestive/alimentary
-respiratory
-urinary
-genital
-endocrine

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3
Q

clinical (applied) anatomy

A

-emphasizes aspects of the structure and function of the body important to clinical practice
-regional and systemic approach
-clinical application
-case studies

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4
Q

gender vs sex

A

-sex is assigned chromosomally
-gender is an individuals intrinsic sense of their own gender
-46 chromosomes
-female- xx
-male- xy
-klinefelter syndrome- 47 chromosomes (xxy)
-jacob syndrome- 47 chromosomes (xyy)

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5
Q

Median / Sagittal plane

A

-only 1 median plane
-infinite sagittal planes
-vertical plane passing longitudinally

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6
Q

oblique planes

A

-sections that do not align with preceding planes

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7
Q

intermediate

A

-between a superficial and deep structure
-bicep is intermediate between the skin and the humerus

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8
Q

palmar vs dorsal

A

-palmar surface- anterior
-dorsal surface- dorsum- posterior

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9
Q

plantar vs dorsal

A

-plantar surface- inferior foot (sole)
-dorsal surface- dorsum- superior

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10
Q

pronation vs supination

A

-pronation- return to anatomical
-supination flipping hand over from anatomical

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11
Q

dorsiflexion

A

-toes up

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12
Q

plantarflexion

A

-tip toes

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13
Q

eversion

A

-outside part of foot up

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14
Q

inversion

A

-inside part of the foot up

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15
Q

lateral flexion

A

-lateral bending
-sway side to side

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16
Q

opposition vs resposition

A

-opposition- thumb + pinky
-reposition- thumb moves away from pinky

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17
Q

retrusion vs protrusion

A

-retrusion- jaw in
-protrusion- jaw out

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18
Q

abduction, adduction, extension, flexion of the thumb

A

-abduction- thumb moves anteriorly
-adduction- thumb moves posterior back into anatomical
-extension- thumb separates
-flexion- thumb bends towards pinky

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19
Q

protraction vs retraction

A

-protraction- shoulder forward
-retraction- shoulder backward

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20
Q

integumentary system

A

-best indicator of general health
-protection
-containment of tissues, organs, vital substances, prevents dehydration
-heat regulation- sweat glands, blood vessels, fat deposits
-sensation- superficial nerves
-synthesis and storage of vitamin D
-epidermis- superficial cellular layer, protects
-dermis- basal (deep) regenerative and pigmented connective tissue layer
-hair, nails, mammary glands, enamel of teeth

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21
Q

epidermis

A

-keratinized- tough outer surface composed of keratin
-stratified
-outer layer sheds off and is replaced by basal layer- renews 25-45 days
-avascular- nourished by underlying dermis
-supplied by afferent nerve endings that are sensitive to touch, pain, and temperature
-most nerve terminal are in dermis but some penetrate epidermis

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22
Q

dermis

A

-dense layer of interlacing collagen and elastic fibers
-fibers -> skin tone and strength of skin
-primary direction of collagen fibers -> tension lines (cleavage lines) and wrinkle lines
-deep layer of dermis- hair follicles + smooth arrector muscles + sebaceous glands
-contraction of arrector muscles -> erects hairs -> compresses sebaceous glands -> secrete oil

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23
Q

subcutaneous tissue

A

-superficial fascia
-loose connective tissue and fat
-between dermis and underlying deep fascia
-contains the deepest parts of the sweat glands, blood lymphatic vessels, and cutaneous nerves
-fat storage- thickness depends on person
-skin ligaments- consist of numerous small fibrous bands and extend through subQ tissue and attack the deep surface of the dermis to underlying deep fascia -> length determines movement of skin over deep structures

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24
Q

deep fascia

A

-dense
-organized connective tissue
-devoid of fat
-envelops most of internal body
-investing fascia- individual muscles and neurovascular bundles
-intermuscular septa- divide muscles into groups or compartments
-subserous fascia- lie between the musculoskeletal walls and serous membranes lining body cavities

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25
Q

deep fascia forms:

A

-retinacula- holds tendons in place during joint movements
-bursae- (closed sacs containing fluid)- prevent friction and enable structure to move freely over one another

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26
Q

facial planes

A

-interfascial and intrafascial
-potential spaces between adjacent fascias or fascia lined structures

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27
Q

axial skeleton

A

-head (cranium or skull), neck (cervical vertebrae), trunk (ribs, sternum, vertebrae, sacrum)

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28
Q

appendicular skeleton

A

-bones of limbs
-include pectoral (shoulder) and pelvic girdle

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29
Q

cartilage

A

-resilient
-semirigid
-avascular
-connective tissue
-cells obtain oxygen and nutrients by diffusion
-younger people have greater contribution of cartilage

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30
Q

articular cartilage

A

-cap articulating surfaces of bones participating in a synovial joint
-provides smooth, low friction gliding surfaces

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31
Q

bone

A

-living tissue
-highly specialized
-hard form of connective tissue
-chief supporting tissue of body
-protection for vital structures
-support for the body and its vital cavities
-mechanical basis for movement
-storage for salts (calcium)
-continuous supply of new blood cells

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32
Q

compact vs spongy (trabecular or cancellous) bone

A

-2 types of bone
-differences between the 2 depend on the relative amount of solid matter and the # and size of the space they contain
-bones have superficial thin layer of compact bone around central mass of spongy bone (except where the latter is replaced by a medullary (marrow) cavity
-architecture of spongy and compact bone vary upon function

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33
Q

medullary (marrow) cavity

A

-in adult bones blood cells and platelets are formed here
-also between the spicules of spongy bone

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34
Q

compact bone

A

-provides strength for weight bearing
-greatest near the middle shaft of the bone where it is liable to buckle in long bones

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35
Q

periosteum

A

-fibrous connective tissue covering that surrounds bones
-nourish tissue
-capable of laying down more cartilage or bone (healing)
-provide interface for attachment of tendons and ligaments

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36
Q

perichondrium

A

-tissue surrounding cartilage elements excluding articular cartilage
-nourish tissue
-capable of laying down more cartilage or bone (healing)
-provide interface for attachment of tendons and ligaments

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37
Q

long bones

A

-tubular structures
-humerus
-phalanges

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38
Q

short bones

A

-cuboidal
-found only in the ankle (tarsus) and wrist (carpus)

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39
Q

flat bones

A

-serve protective functions
-cranium

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40
Q

irregular bones

A

-in the face
-various shapes other than long, short, flat

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41
Q

sesamoid bones

A

-patella, kneecap
-develop in certain tendons
-protect the tendons from excessive wear and often change the angle of the tendons as they pass to their attachments

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42
Q

bone markings

A

appear wherever tendons, ligaments, and fascia are attached or where arteries lie adjacent to or enter bones

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43
Q

condyle

A

-rounded articular area
-condyles of the femur

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44
Q

crest

A

-ridge of bone

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45
Q

epicondyle

A

eminence superior to a condyle
-epicondyles of the humerus

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46
Q

facet

A

-smooth, flat area
-usually covered with cartilage
-where a bone articulates with another bone
-articular facets of a vetebrae

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47
Q

foramen

A

-passage through a bone
-obturator foramen

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48
Q

fossa

A

-hollow or depressed area
-infraspinous fossa of the scapula

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49
Q

line (linea)

A

-linear elevation
-soleal line of the tibia

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50
Q

malleolus

A

-rounded prominence
-lateral malleolus of the fibula

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51
Q

process

A

-projecting spine like part
-spinous process of a vertebrae

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52
Q

notch

A

indentation at the edge of a bone
-greater sciatic notch in the posterior border of the hip bone

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53
Q

protuberance

A

-projection of bone
-external occipital protuberance of the cranium

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54
Q

spine

A

thorn like process
-spine of the scapula

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55
Q

trochanter

A

-large, blunt elevation
-greater trochanter of the femur

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56
Q

tubercle

A

-small, raised eminence
-greater tubercle of the humerus

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57
Q

tuberosity

A

-large, rounded elevated
-ischial tuberosity of the hip bone

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58
Q

mesenchym

A

-all bones are derived from mesenchyme
-embryonic connective tissue
-intramembranous ossification- bone formation directly from mesenchyme
-endochondral ossification- bone formation from cartilage derived from mesenchyme

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59
Q

intramembranous ossification

A

-membranous bone formation
-directly from mesenchyme
-mesenchymal models of bone form during the embryonic period
-begins in fetal period

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60
Q

endochondral ossification

A

-cartilaginous bone formation
-cartilage models of bones form from mesenchyme during fetal period, and bone replaces most of the cartilage
-mesenchymal cells condense and differentiate into chondroblasts -> dividing cells in growing cartilage tissue -> cartilaginous bone model
-cartilage calcifies and periosteal capillaries grow into the calcified cartilage of the bone model and supply its interior
-blood vessels, with associated osteogenic (bone-forming) cells form 0> periosteal bud

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61
Q

primary ossification center

A

-bone tissue it forms replaces most of the cartilage in the shaft of the bone model
-shaft of bone ossified -> diaphysis

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62
Q

secondary ossification centers

A

-appear in other parts of the developing bone after birth
-parts ossified from here -> epiphyses
-epiphysial arteries grow into developing cavities with associated osteogenic cells

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63
Q

metaphysis

A

-flared part of diaphysis nearest to epiphysis

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64
Q

Continual growth

A

-bone formed in primary center in diaphysis does not fuse with bone formed from secondary centers until bone reaches adult size
-cartilaginous epiphyseal plates intervene between diaphysis and epiphyses
-growth plates are eventually replaced by bone : diaphysial and epiphysial
-diaphysis fuses with epiphyses -> bone growth ceases
-seam formed during synostosis is dense and appears in radiographs -> epiphysial line`

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65
Q

nutrient arteries

A

-1 or more per bone
-arise outside periosteum, pass through shaft via nutrient foramina and split in the medullary cavity into longitudinal branches
-supply bone marrow, spongy bone, and deeper portions of the compact bone

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66
Q

periosteal arteries

A

-small branches from periosteal arteries supply most of compact bone
-if periosteum is removed bone will die

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67
Q

metaphysial and epiphysial arteries

A

-supply the ends of bones
-arise mainly from arteries that supply joints

68
Q

bone nerves

A

-periosteum richly supplied with sensory nerves
-periosteal nerves- carry pain fibers
-periosteum is sensitive to tearing or tension -> acute pain from fracture
-vasomotor nerves cause constriction or dilation of blood vessels -> regulates blood flow through bone marrow

69
Q

3 joints

A

-fibrous
-cartilaginous
-synovial

70
Q

fibrous joints

A

-united by fibrous tissue
-movement depends on length of fibers uniting articulating bones
-syndesmosis- unties bones with sheet of fibrous tissue, either a ligament or fibrous membrane -> movable
-gomphosis- type of fibrous joint found in teeth

71
Q

cartilaginous joints

A

-united by hyaline cartilage (primary) or fibrocartilage (secondary)
-synchondroses- permit growth of length of bone and allow slight bending until epiphyseal plate converts to bone
-symphyses- strong slightly mobile joints

72
Q

synovial joints

A

-cavity
-contains a small amount of synovial fluid
-nourishing articular cartilage and lubricating joint surfaces
-most common
-reinforced by accessory ligaments that either separate (extrinsic) or are thickened part of the joint capsule (Intrinsic)
-some have fibrocartilaginous articular discs or menisci present when the articulating surfaces of the bones are incongruous
-6 types classified by shape of the articulating surface and/or type of movement they permit

73
Q

6 types of synovial joints

A

-pivot- uniaxial, rounded process fits into bony ligamentous socket -> rotation- ex. median atlantoaxial joint
-ball and socket- multiaxial, rounded head fits into concavity- ex. hip joint
-condyloid- biaxial, permit flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction- ex. metacarpophalangeal joint
-saddle- biaxial- ex. carpometacarpal joint
-hinge- uniaxial, permit flexion and extension- ex. elbow
-plane- usually uniaxial, gliding or sliding- ex. acromioclavicular joint

74
Q

vasculature of joints

A

-receive blood from articular arteries that arise from vessels around joint
-anastomose (communicate) to form networks to ensure continuous blood supply throughout its range of movement
-articular veins located in joint capsules mostly synovial membrane
-rich nerve supply
-in distal parts of limbs, articular nerves are branches of cutaneous nerves supplying overlying skin
-nerves that supply muscles supply and move joints
-many pain fibers in fibrous layer of joint capsule
-joints transmit proprioception

75
Q

hilton law

A

-nerves supplying a joint also supply the muscles moving the joint and the skin covering their attachments

76
Q

muscle fibers

A

-muscle cells
-long narrow
-contractile
-1. skeletal striated muscle
-2. cardiac striated muscle
-3. smooth muscle

77
Q

skeletal muscle

A

-contractile portion-skeletal striated muscle (heads or bellies)
-noncontractile portion- collagen bundles: tendons and aponeuroses
-most are attached directly or indirectly through tendons and aponeuroses to bones, cartilages, ligaments, or fascia
-some are attached directly to organ- eye, skin (face), mucous membranes (tongue)
-provide static support, give form to body, provide heat

78
Q

pennate muscles

A

-feather like in arrangemnt of their fascicles
-unipennate, bipennate, multipennate

79
Q

fusiform muscles

A

-spindle shaped
-round, thick belly, tapered ends

80
Q

parallel muscles

A

-fascicles lie parallel to the long axis of the muscle
-flat muscles with parallel fibers often have aponeuroses

81
Q

convergent muscles

A

-have broad attachment from which the fascicles converge to a single tendon

82
Q

circular muscles

A

-surround body opening or orifice
-constricting it when constracted

83
Q

digastric muscles

A

-feature two bellies in series, sharing a common intermediate tendon

84
Q

contraction of muscles

A

-shorten 70% of resting length
-long, parallel fascicle shorten the most -> high ROM, low strength
-short, wide pennate muscles- shorten less, more powerful
-attachments of muscles are usually described as the origin (proximal) and insertion (distal- moveable)
-some muscles can act in both directions

85
Q

reflexive contraction

A

-automatic, nonvoluntary
-respiratory movement of diaphragm

86
Q

tonic contraction

A

-slight contraction
-does not produce movement or active resistance
-gives muscle firmness
-assists in stability of joints and maintenance of posture

87
Q

phasic contraction

A

-isometric contraction- muscle length remains the same (no movement), tension increased above tonic levels (holding abduction)
-isotonic contractions- muscles changes length to produce movement -> concentric and eccentric contractions
-concentric- movement occurs due to muscle shortening (abduction)
-eccentric- progressive lengthening of contracted muscle (adducted)

88
Q

components of muscle

A

-structural unit of a muscle - muscle fiber
-endomysium- connective tissue covering individual muscle fibers
-perimysium- covers a group of fiber bundles
-epimysium- covers entire muscle
-motor unit- motor neuron + muscle fibers it controls
-motor units with more fibers -> less precise

89
Q

prime mover or agonist

A

-main muscle responsible for producing a specific movement of the body
-concentric contraction

90
Q

fixators

A

-steady the proximal parts of a limb while movements are occurring in distal parts

91
Q

synergist

A

-complements the action of prime movers
-by preventing movement of the intervening joint when a prime mover passes over more than one joint

92
Q

antagonist

A

-muscle that opposes the action of a prime mover
-as prime mover contracts -> antagonist progressively relaxes
-produces a smooth movement

93
Q

cardiac striated muscle

A

-myocardium
-some is in the aorta, pulmonary vein, superior vena cava
-nonvoluntary
-rhythmic contractions generated intrinsically by pacemaker nodes
-rate is influenced by autonomic nervous system
-propagated myogenically (muscle fiber to muscle fiber) rather than direct nerve stimulation

94
Q

smooth muscle

A

-absence of microscopic striations
-middle coat or layer of walls of most blood vessels and muscular part of the wall of digestive tract and ducts
-skin- arrector muscles
-eyeball- pupil size
-innervated by ANS
-involuntary
-regulates size of lumen and tubular structures
-peristaltic waves

95
Q

capillary beds

A

-minute but numerous thin walled capillaries form a capillary bed
-interchange of oxygen, nutrients, waste products, substances with extracellular fluid

96
Q

layers of vessels

A

-tunica intima- thin endothelial lining
-tunica media- middle smooth layer
-tunica adventitia- outer connective tissue coat

97
Q

large elastic arteries

A

-conducting arteries
-many elastic layers
-aorta and its branches
-elasticity in these arteries maintains blood pressure
-allows to expand when heart contracts and return to normal between contractions

98
Q

medium muscular arteries

A

-distributing arteries
-walls are mainly smooth muscle circularly arranged
-femoral artery
-decrease their diameter (vasoconstrict) -> regulates flow of blood to different parts of body as required

99
Q

small arteries/arterioles

A

-narrow lumina
-thick muscular walls
-degree of arterial pressure is mainly regulated by degree of tonus (firmness) in smooth muscle of arteriolar walls
-if tonus in arteriolar wall is above normal -> hypertension

100
Q

venous plexus

A

-venules unite to form larger veins
-dorsal venous arch

101
Q

large veins

A

-SVC
-IVC
-wide bundles of longitudinal smooth muscle
-well developed tunica adventitia
-veins in general more frequently anastomoses

102
Q

venous blood return to heart

A

-vascular sheath- accompanying veins (to arteries) surround arteries in a branching network
-veins are stretched and flattened as the artery expands during contractions of heart -> Assists in venous blood return
-Musculovenous pump- skeletal muscles compress deep veins -> milking blood superiorly towards heart
-multiple perforating veins penetrate deep fascia to shunt blood to deep veins and assist in venous return

103
Q

arteriovenous anastomoses (AV shunts)

A

-capillaries are endothelial tubes
- the small arteries and veins connect directly proximal to capillary beds (ex. fingers)
-permit blood to pass directly from arterial to venous side
-numerous
-important role in conserving body heat

104
Q

lymphatic plexuses

A

-networks of small lymphatic vessels
-lymphatic capillaries that originate in the extracellular spaces of most tissues

105
Q

lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)

A

-nearly body wide network of thin walled vessels with abundant valves
-originate from lymphatic plexuses along where lymph nodes are located
-occur almost everywhere blood capillaries are found (except teeth, bone, bone marrow, CNS)

106
Q

lymph nodes

A

-small masses of lymphatic tissue through which lymph is filtered on its way to the venous system

107
Q

lymphocytes

A

-circulating cells of the immune system that react against foreign materials

108
Q

lymphoid organs

A

-sites that produce lymphocytes
-walls of the digestive tract, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, myeloid tissue in red bone marrow

109
Q

lymph traveling

A

-after traversing 1 or more lymph nodes….
-lymph enters lymphatic trunks -> trunks unite to form right lymphatic duct or thoracic duct

110
Q

right lymphatic duct

A

-drain lymph from bodys right upper quad (right head, neck, thorax, right upper limbs)
-duct ends in angular junction of the right subclavian and internal jugular veins called right venous angle

111
Q

thoracic duct

A

-drains lymph from remainder of body
-begins in abdomen as a dilatation, the cisterna chyli, and ascends through the thorax and enters the junction of the left internal jugular and left subclavian veins called the left venous angle

112
Q

superficial lymphatic vessels

A

-in the skin and subcutaneous tissue -> drain into deep lymphatic vessel

113
Q

lymphatic system additional purposes

A

-absorption and transport of dietary fat- lymphatic capillaries (lacteals) receive all absorbed fat (chyle) from the intestine and convey it through thoracic duct to venous system
-formation of a defense mechanism for the body- foreign protein drains from infected area - > antibodies formed by lymphocytes and dispatched to infected area

114
Q

nervous system divisions

A

-CNS- brain + spinal cord
-PNS- nerve fibers + cell bodies outside CNS
-sensory (afferent)- carries info to CNS
-motor (efferent)- carries stimulatory impulses from CNS to effector organs (muscles or glands)
-sensory and motor have visceral and somatic (voluntary) components
-somatic motor- supplies skeletal
-visceral motor- (ANS) supplies smooth muscle, glands, and conducting system of heart
-somatic sensory- carries sensation like touch and pain from skin, muscles, joints
-visceral sensory- carries sensation (pain and reflex) from viscera of body cavities

115
Q

nervous tissue

A

-neurons (Nerve cells)
-neuroglia (glial cells)

116
Q

neurons

A

-structural and functional units of NS
-cell body, dendrites, axon
-communicate at synapses
-communicate by means of neurotransmitters- chemical agents released or secreted by one neuron -> Excites or inhibits another neuron

117
Q

myelin

A

-layers of lipid and protein substances
-forms myelin sheath around some axons
-greatly increases velocity of impulse conduction

118
Q

neuroglia

A

-glial cells or glia
-approx 5 times as abundant as neurons
-nonneuronal
-nonexcitable
-form major component (scaffolding) of nervous tissue
-support, insulate, nourish neurons

119
Q

CNS

A

-brain + spinal cord
-integrate and coordinate incoming and outgoing neural signal
-carry out thinking and learning

120
Q

nucleus

A

-collection of nerve cell bodies in the CNS

121
Q

tract

A

-bundle of nerve fibers (axons) connecting neighboring or distant nuclei of the CNS

122
Q

gray vs white matter

A

-nerve cell bodies are in and constitute gray matter
-interconnecting fiber tract systems from white matter
-gray matter is H shaped embedded in matrix of white matter
-struts of H are the horns -> posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) gray horns

123
Q

meninges

A

-meninges and CSF surround and protect CNS
-brain and spinal cord are covered by delicate, transparent pia mater
-CSF in the subarachnoid space between pia and arachnoid mater
-dura mater- thick, close to internal aspect of bone
-dura of the spinal cord is separate from vertebral column by fat filled space -> epidural space

124
Q

PNS

A

-nerve fibers and nerve cell bodies outside CNS that connect CNS with peripheral structures
-peripheral nerves consist of bundles or nerve fibers, their connective tissue coverings, and blood vessels -> vasa nervorum
-nerve fibers- axon, single process of a neuron, neurolemma, cell membranes of schwann cells, endoneurium (connective tissue sheath)
-peripheral nerves are strong and resilient bc they are supported and protected by 3 coverings: endoneurium, perineurium, epineurium

125
Q

myelinated nerve fibers

A

-neurolemma has a myelin sheath
-consists of continuous series of schwann cells enwrapping an individual axon

126
Q

unmyelinated nerve fibers

A

-neurolemma consists of multiple axons separately embedded within the cytoplasm of each schwann cell
-schwann cells do not produce myelin
-most fibers in cutaneous nerves (skin) are unmyelinated

127
Q

endoneurium

A

-delicate connective tissue sheath that surrounds the neurolemma cells and axons

128
Q

perineurium

A

-layer of dense connective tissue that encloses a fascicle (bundle) of peripheral nerve fibers
-provides an effective barrier against penetration of the nerve fibers by foreign substances

129
Q

epineurium

A

-thick connective tissue sheath that surrounds and encloses a bundle of fascicles
-forms the outermost covering of the nerve
-includes fatty tissues, blood vessels, and lymphatics

130
Q

ganglion

A

-collection of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS
-motor (autonomic) and sensory ganglia

131
Q

cranial nerves

A

-peripheral nerves are either cranial or spinal
-12 pairs
-11 pairs of cranial nerves arise from brain
-1 pair (11) from superior part of the spinal cord
-exit the cranial cavity through foramina in the cranium

132
Q

spinal nerves

A

-31 pairs
-8 cervical
-12 thoracic
-5 lumbar
-5 sacral
-1 coccygeal
-arise from spinal cord and exit through intervertebral foramina in the vertebral column

133
Q

somatic nervous system

A

-somatic parts of CNS and PNS
-provides general sensory and motor innervation to all of body (except viscera, smooth muscle, glands)
-somatic sensory fibers transmit sensations of touch, pain, temperature, and position
-somatic motor fibers stimulate skeletal (voluntary) muscle only -> voluntary and reflexing movements

134
Q

spinal nerve

A

-somatic sensory and motor fibers, visceral motor fibers, connective tissue coverings, vasa nervorum
-arise from spinal cord by nerve rootlets which converge to form 2 nerve roots
-anterior (ventral) root- consists of motor (efferent) fibers passing from nerve cell bodies in the anterior and lateral horns of spinal cord gray matter to effector organs located peripherally
-posterior (dorsal) root- consists of sensory (afferent) fibers that convey neural impulses to CNS from sensory receptors in various parts of the body (skin)
-posterior root carries general sensory fibers to the posterior horn of the spinal cord
-anterior and posterior root unite at the intervertebral foramen to form a spinal nerve -> divides into 2 rami (branches) -> posterior ramus and anterior ramus
-branches of mixed spinal nerve - anterior and posterior rami carry both motor and sensory nerves

135
Q

posterior rami

A

-supply nerve fibers to synovial joints of the vertebral column, deep muscles of the back, and overyling skin

136
Q

anterior rami

A

-supply nerve fibers to the much larger remaining area, consisting of anterior and lateral regions of the trunk and the upper and lower limbs arising from them

137
Q

spinal nerve: somatic sensory fibers

A

-sensory fibers transmit sensations from body to CNS
-exteroceptive sensations- pain temperature, touch, pressure from skin
-proprioceptive sensations- subconscious sensations regarding body in space from muscles, tensons, joints
-dermatomes

138
Q

dermatome

A

-unilateral area of skin innervated by the general sensory fibers of single spinal nerve

139
Q

spinal nerve: somatic motor fibers

A

-transmit impulses to skeletal (voluntary) muscles
-unilateral muscle mass receiving innervation from somatic motor fibers conveyed by a spinal nerve
-myotomes
-each skeletal muscle innervated by somatic motor fibers of several spinal nerves -> myotome has several segments

140
Q

myotome

A

-unilateral muscle mass receiving innervation from somatic motor fibers conveyed by a spinal nerve
-unilateral portion of skeletal muscle
-grouped by joint movement to facilitate clinical testing

141
Q

spinal nerve: visceral motor fibers

A

-sympathetic part of ANS are conveyed by all branches of spinal nerves to the smooth muscle of blood vessels and to sweat glands and arrector pili
-visceral motor fibers of the PNS part of ANS and visceral afferent fiber have very limits association with spinal nerves

142
Q

vasa nervorum

A

-spinal nerve
-blood vessels supplying the nerves

143
Q

ANS

A

-aka visceral motor system
-visceral efferent (motor) fibers stimulate smooth muscle in walls of blood vessels, organs, cardiac, and glands
-accompanied by visceral afferent (sensory) fibers to regulate visceral functions

144
Q

visceral motor innervation

A

-efferent nerve fibers and ganglia of the ANS are organized into 2 divisions:
-1. sympathetic (thoracolumbar) division
-2. parasympathetic (craniosacral) division
-divisions innervate same structures with opposite effect
-impulses from CNS involve 2 neurons in both sympathetic and parasympathetic
-location of the presynaptic cell bodies and which nerves conduct the presynaptic fibers from the CNS -> distinguish symp from para

145
Q

sympathetic (thoracolumbar) division

A

-ANS division
-catabolic
-fight or flight
-neurotransmitter- norephinephrine (except for sweat glands)
-reaches almost all parts of body - not avascular -> cartilage and nails
-presynaptic fibers are shorts and post are longer (extend to all parts)
-main function is to regulate blood vessels- dilate, constrict

146
Q

parasympathetic (craniosacral) division

A

-anabolic
-conserving energy
-ANS division
-neurotransmitter- acetylcholine

147
Q

presynaptic (preganglionic) neuron

A

-in the gray matter
-axon synapses on cell body of postsynaptic (postganglionic) neuron

148
Q

postsynaptic (postganglionic) neuron

A

-located outside the CNS in autonomic ganglia
-postsynaptic fibers terminating on the effector organ (smooth muscle, cardiac, glands)

149
Q

sympathetic visceral motor innervation

A

-presynaptic neurons are in the intermediolateral cell columns (IMLs) or nuclei of the spinal cord- lateral horns
-paired IMLs are part of gray matter between T1-L2+L3
-postsynaptic cell bodies occur in 2 places: paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia
-axons of presynaptic neurons leave spinal cord through anterior roots and enter anterior rami of spinal nerves T1-L2+L3
-after entering rami presynaptic sympathetic fibers leave anterior rami and pass to sympathetic trunks through white rami communicates

150
Q

paravertebral ganglia

A

-form right and left sympathetic trunks (chains) on each side of vertebral column that extends the length of the column
-superior cervical ganglion- superior paravertebral ganglion lies at the base of cranium
-ganglion impar- forms inferiorly where 2 trunks unite at level of coccyx

151
Q

prevertebral ganglia

A

-in the plexuses that surround origins of main branches of abdominal aorta

152
Q

course of presynaptic fibers within sympathetic trunks

A

-1 of 4 possible courses after entering sympathetic trunks
-1. ascend
-2. descend in sympathetic trunk to synapse with postsynaptic neuron of higher or lower paravertebral ganglion
-3. enter and synapse immediately with postsynaptic neuron of paravertebral ganglion at that level
-4. pass through sympathetic trunk without synapsing continuing on within abdominopelvic splanchnic nerve to reach prevertebral ganglia

153
Q

presynaptic sympathetic fibers

A

-provide autonomic innervation within head, neck, body wall, limbs, and thoracic cavity
-follow 1 of 3 courses after entering sympathetic trunks:
-1. ascend
-2. descend in sympathetic trunk to synapse with postsynaptic neuron of higher or lower paravertebral ganglion
-3. enter and synapse immediately with postsynaptic neuron of paravertebral ganglion at that level
-> synapses within paravertebral ganglia
-presynaptic sympathetic fibers innervating viscera within abdominopelvic cavity follow 4th (-4. pass through sympathetic trunk without synapsing continuing on within abdominopelvic splanchnic nerve to reach prevertebral ganglia)

154
Q

postsynaptic sympathetic fibers

A

-outnumber presynaptic fibers
-those in neck, body wall, limbs, pass from paravertebral ganglia of sympathetic trunks to adjacent anterior rami of spinal nerves through gray rami communicantes
-enter all branches of each of the 31 pairs of spinal nerves including posterior rami to stimulate contraction of blood vessels and arrector muscles
-Postsynaptic sympathetic fibers that perform these functions in the head have their cell bodies in the superior cervical ganglion at the superior end of the sympathetic trunk -> pass from ganglion by means of a cephalic arterial branch -> form periarterial plexuses of nerves -> follows branches of the carotid arteries or pass to CNs to reach their destination in the head
-components of all branches of all spinal nerves -> innervate all bodys blood vessels, sweat glands, arrector, visceral structure

155
Q

splanchnic nerves

A

-convey visceral efferent (autonomic) and afferent fiber to and from viscera of body cavities
-postsynaptic sympathetic fibers for viscera and thoracic cavity pass through cardiopulmonary splanchnic nerves to enter cardiac, pulmonary, and esophageal plexuses
-presynaptic sympathetic fibers innervation abdominopelvic cavity pass to prevertebral ganglia through abdominopelvic splanchnic nerves -> synapse in prevertebral ganglia
-some that some synapse here terminate directly on cells in medella of suprarenal gland
-postsynaptic fibers form prevertebral ganglia form periarterial plexuses -> follow branches of abdominal aorta to reach destination

156
Q

suprarenal gland

A

-suprarenal medullary cells function as special type of postsynaptic neuron that release neurotransmitters into bloodstream to circulate throughout body producing widespread sympathetic response
-(rather than release onto the cells of specific effector organ)

157
Q

parasympathetic visceral motor innervation

A

-presynaptic are located in 2 sites: cranial and sacral site
-cranial site- from the gray matter of brainstem, fibers exit CNS within CN 3, 7, 9, 10 -> cranial parasympathetic outflow
-sacral site- from gray matter of sacral segments of the spinal cord (S2-S4), the fibers exit CNS through anterior roots of spinal nerves S2-S4 and the pelvic splanchnic nerves that arise from anterior rami -> sacral parasympathetic outflow
-weaker than sympathetic -> only head, visceral cavities of trunk, and erectile tissues of genitalia

158
Q

cranial outflow

A

-parasympathetic innervation of head
-through vagus nerve (10) -> innervation of thoracic and abdominal viscera
-GI
-sacral outflow supplies descending and sigmoid colon and rectum from GI

159
Q

parasympathetic synapse

A

-4 discrete pairs of ganglia in the head
-elsewhere, pre and post synapse in or on wall of target organ
-pre are long- extend from CNS to effector organ
-post is short running from ganglion located near or in effector organ

160
Q

enteric nervous system

A

-postsynaptic parasympathetic motor neurons of the GI tract
-ENS
-autonomous without connection to CNS
-2 interconnected plexuses within the walls of GI tract: myenteric plexus of wall musculature and submucosal plexus, deep to and serving the gut lining mucosa
-plexus include intrinsic primary afferent neurons that receive local input and stimulate motor neurons -> local reflex -> integrate exocrine and endocrine secretion, vasomotion, micromotility, and immune activity of gut
-modulated by input from extrinsic parasympathetic and sympathetic sibers

161
Q

visceral afferent sensation

A

-info is integrated in CNS -> trigger visceral or somatic reflexes
-visceral reflexes regulate BP and chemistry by altering heart and respiratory rate and vascular resistance
-visceral sensation that reaches conscious level is poorly localized pain- hunger, nausea -> strong ones- > spams, contractions, distention

162
Q

conventional radiography (X-ray)

A

-highly penetrating beam
-transilluminates
-shows tissue of differing density of mass
-dense- absorbs more -> transparent area -> radiopaque
-less dense- radiolucent
-posterior to anterior (PA projection)
-anterior to posterior (AP projection)
-lateral radiographs- radiopaque letters (R or L) are used to indicate the side

163
Q

computerized tomography (CT)

A

-transverse
-beam of x-rays passed through body
-amount of radiation absorbed by diff types of tissue varies with fat, bone, and water

164
Q

ultrasonography

A

-visualization of superficial or deep structure in body
-records pulses of ultrasonic waves reflecting off tissues
-can be viewed in real time
-standard method from embryo and fetus bc no radiation

165
Q

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

-better for tissue differentiation
-reconstruct the tissue in ANY PLANE (diff from CT)
-magnetic field
-body pulsed with radio waves
-signal emitted from pts tissues are stored in computer
-can vary by controlling how radiofrequency pulses are sent and received
-scanners can be gated or paced to see blood in real time
-MR angiography and venography use MRI and dyes to image blood vessels
-MR spectroscopy- investigate metabolic changes in brain after stroke, tumor, etc.

166
Q

positron emission tomography (PET)

A

-uses cyclotron produced isotopes of extremely short half life that emit positrons
-evaluate physiological functions of organs
-areas of increased brain activity will show selective uptake of injected isotope

Anatomy (34 decks)

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