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Anatomy > Anatomy Exam 1 > Flashcards

Anatomy Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Receptor

A

notes changes in system

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2
Q

Integrator

A

decides what to do

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3
Q

Effector

A

produces change

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4
Q

What component of a feedback system is not necessarily found in all control systems?

A

Integrator

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5
Q

Negative Feedback

A

Product of reaction inhibits further production of that specific product. Over shoot and under shoot are common features of this mechanism due to delay

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6
Q

Positive Feedback

A

Product stimulates the production of more product

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7
Q

Five primary functions controlled by positive feedback mechanisms

A

blood clotting
ovulation
labor
nerve impulse generation
shock cycle

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8
Q

The components of the cell membrane that function as receptor sites are the __

A

glycoproteins

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9
Q

The components of the cell membrane that make the membrane virtually impermeable to water soluble molecules are the __

A

phospholipids

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10
Q

Peripheral proteins

A

cell division, shape, and some enzyme activity

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11
Q

Integral proteins

A

extend from intracellular to extracellular margins
-channel proteins
-transport proteins

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12
Q

Glycoproteins

A

protein molecules with associated carbohydrate chains
-cell adhesion
-receptor sites
-immune reactions

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13
Q

Diffusion

A

movement from high concentration to low concentration based on molecular collisions

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14
Q

Simple diffusion

A

concentration gradient alone
(membrane not necessarily considered simple diffusion)

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15
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

gradient + protein carriers

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16
Q

Diffusion through protein channels

A
  1. simple diffusion through water-filled channels in protein structure
  2. selective permeability produced by:
    channel charge
    channel size
  3. gating of protein channels
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17
Q

Voltage gating

A

ionic charges produce change

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18
Q

Ligand gating

A

binding of particles other than transport molecule produces change (e.g. Ca++)

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19
Q

The fact that Ca++ can make the sodium channels of conducting membrane less excitable is an example of

A

Ligand gating

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20
Q

The fact that changes in the ionic environment of the extracellular fluids can open or close protein channels can be attributed to __

A

configurational changes in the proteins

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21
Q

Transport of glucose and amino acids is by __

A

Facilitated diffusion

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22
Q

Factors that influence rates of diffusion transport

A
  1. permeability of membrane
    lipid solubility
    molecular size
    molecular weight
    kinetic energy
  2. concentration gradient
  3. temperatur
  4. number of protein channels present
  5. ionic charge of substance and of membrane proteins
  6. pressure gradients, in addition for facilitated diffusion
  7. number of carriers
  8. activation of carriers
  9. rate of transport
    rate of binding and release
    rate of movement across membrane
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23
Q

Increased ATP levels have

A

no change of diffusion rates

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24
Q

Osmosis

A

The diffusion of water across the cell membrane

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25
Q

Hypotonic

A

Gain of water and swelling of cells

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26
Q

Isotonic

A

no net movement of water

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27
Q

Hypertonic

A

loss of water and shrinking of cells

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28
Q

Filtration

A

The separation of large from small particles using a membrane of set pore size and a pressure gradient
e.g. capillary exchange and kidney function

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29
Q

Dialysis

A

the separation of large form small particles using a membrane of set port size and diffusion. this mechanism does not play a major role in biological systems

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30
Q

Common feature of all passive mechanisms is __

A

equilibrium

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31
Q

If a cell containing 99.5% water is placed into a 0.9% NaCl solution, the cell will __

A

Shrink

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32
Q

If you wanted to deliver more water from the blood into the tissues, you would make the blood more __

A

hypotonic

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33
Q

Although both filtration and dialysis are mechanisms that utilize membranes with specific pore sizes to separate molecules of different sizes, they differ in that dialysis utilizes___

A

a concentration gradient

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34
Q

Active transport

A

movement of materials across a membrane, usually against a concentration gradient, using carrier proteins and cell energy

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35
Q

Primary active transport

A

carrier proteins and ATP

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36
Q

Secondary active transport

A

movement along concentration of electrical gradients that were established by primary active transport systems

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37
Q

The sodium/potassium pump would be categorizes as a __

A

Primary active transport system

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38
Q

The mechanism by which materials are transported across cellular sheets could be used as an example of __

A

primary and secondary active transport

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39
Q

The Na/K pump would be considered __

A

A counter transport system

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40
Q

Vmax

A
  1. number of carriers
  2. activation of carriers
  3. rate of binding
  4. rate of release
  5. rate of conformational change
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41
Q

Co-Transport

A

Two binding sites on the same carrier protein. Sodium is common in many co-transport systems
e.g sodium + glucose or amino acids

42
Q

Counter transport

A

Similar to co-transport, but particles are moved in opposite across the membrane

43
Q

Active transport across cellular sheets

A

Usually involve active transport into cell on one side of the cellular sheet and passive transport out of the cell on the opposite side of the sheet
e.g. movement of digestive products from the gut lumen into the blood

44
Q

Characteristics of excitable membranes

A
  1. membrane permeable to potassium (100x greater than sodium) movement through sodium and potassium leak channels
  2. membrane for all practical purposes is impermeable to sodium
    3.Na/K pump maintains electrical gradient
  3. Na concentration higher extracellular
  4. K concentration higher intracellular
  5. Membrane is impermeable to large intracellular and extracellular anion
  6. Extracellular charge is Net Positive due to NA+>Anions
  7. Intracellular charge is Net Negative due to Anions>K+
45
Q

In the resting state an excitable membrane is __

A

more permeable to potassium than sodium

46
Q

The sodium/potassium pump mechanism is the most common physiological active transport system

A

-Integral proteins act as carriers
- 3 intracellular binding sites for sodium/carrier molecule
- 2 extracellular binding sites for potassium/carrier molecule
-intracellular portion of carrier has ATpase activity

47
Q

Mechanism of action:

A

-all sodium and potassium binding sites must be occupied
-once all binding sites are occupied, ATPase activity is initiated
-Energy released from ATP used to produce conformational change that moves potassium into cell and sodium out of the cell
-Movement of ions results in higher sodium concentrations in the extracellular fluids with higher concentrations of potassium in the intracellular fluids

48
Q

Why doesn’t K move if membrane is permeable to K?

A

Potassium stays in the cell because the charge on the outside of the cell is positive, K is positive so it would repel the outside of the cell

49
Q

The sodium potassium pump can be activate din non-bioelectric cells when the

A

water concentration within the cell increases

50
Q

Charge shift due to change in membrane permeability that allows sodium to enter the cell

A

Extracellular (anions)>(Na)
Intracellular (Na+K)>(anions)

51
Q

Propagation of Action Potential

A

Charge shift across membrane initiated by some form of stimulus – continuation of change in permeability due to charge shift causing a domino effect on permeability from point of stimulation to end of cell.

52
Q

Immediate Repolarization

A

Movement of K ions out of cell in response to Na movement into cell

53
Q

Voltage gated sodium channels

A

Extracellular activation gate-opens as membrane potential shifts toward the positive (-90mV to -70 mV)
Intracellular inactivation gate - closes as membrane potential shift toward the positive, but with a slight delay
closing of inactivation gate limits the amount of sodium that enters the cell – only allows enough to enter to produce charge shift

54
Q

Voltage gated potassium channels

A

Intracellular channel closed when intracellular charge is negative
Intracellular channel opens when membrane potential shift toward the positive - allows for the movement of potassium in the immediate repolarization response

55
Q

Membrane can continue to depolarize and repolarize in the fashion form __ up to __ times before concentration gradients reach equilibrium

A

100,000 up to 50 million times

56
Q

2x increase in (Na) =

A

8x increase in pump activity

57
Q

Depolarization is marked by the movement of __

A

sodium into the cell

58
Q

Immediate repolarization is marked by movement of __

A

potassium out of the cell

59
Q

Immediate repolarization involves

A

osmosis

60
Q

When an excitable membrane is in the resting state (RMP) the :

A

the sodium activation gates are closed and the inactivation gates are open

61
Q

The movement of ions during depolarization is stopped by the

A

closing of sodium inactivation gates

62
Q

The movement of potassium following depolarization will initially produce

A

the closing of sodium activation gates

63
Q

Basic features of membrane conduction

A
  1. Threshold-liminial stimulus
  2. All- or -None principle of conduction
  3. Direction of Propagation: bi-directional (in theory) unidirectional for most practical purposes
64
Q

When the membrane is stimulated at below threshold levels

A

the membrane will not depolarize

65
Q

Calcium channels are

A

voltage gates
Termed slow channels - 10-20x as long for activation as compared to sodium channels

66
Q

Calcium channels are more common to __

A

cardiac and smooth muscle (action of drugs termed calcium channel blockers)

67
Q

Due to the action of the calcium pump, you would expect to find the concentration of calcium ions to be

A

lower in the cytoplasm and higher in the extracellular fluids

68
Q

Calcium ions and sodium channels

A

-Calcium ions bind to extracellular receptor sites on sodium channels
-Increased voltage change required to open activation gates when Ca++ is bound to protein. 30-50% decrease in Ca++ concentration of the extracellular fluids produces spontaneous opening os sodium channels
-Related to titanic and convulsive muscle contractions in situations where Ca++ regulation is upset

69
Q

Plateau=

A

spike + plateau (depolarized state is maintained)

69
Q

Normal depolarization =

A

spike

70
Q

Plateau response in action potentials sequence of events

A
  1. fast sodium channels open producing typical spike
  2. slow calcium channels open maintaining depolarized state- represented by plateau trace
  3. potassium channels are slow to open, thus delaying repolariztion. potassium channels open when calcium channels close
71
Q

Plateau typical of smooth and cardiac muscle –

A

0.2-0.3 second delay
(skeletal muscle= 0.005 seconds in comparison)

72
Q

Significance of plateau

A

sustained depolarization period maintains contraction, and delayed repolarization allows for rthymicity

73
Q

Membrane at rest is always slightly permeable to sodium

A

-sodium leaks in slowly
-membrane approaches threshold
-threshold is reaches and Na+ channels open

74
Q

Why delay between depolarizations- Why not continuous depolarization?

A

Increased K+ outflow during immediate repolarization produces hyper polarization. Therefore, it takes longer for the membrane to again approach the depolarization point

75
Q

The plateau phase of cardiac and smooth muscle contraction is generated by the

A

opening of calcium channels

76
Q

Hyperpolarization is produced by an increase of

A

the movement of potassium out of the cell

77
Q

Nerve fiber

A

axon or dendrite

78
Q

Epineurium

A

surrounds entire nerve

79
Q

Perineurium

A

surrounds bundles of nerve fibers (fascicles)

80
Q

Endoneurium

A

surrounds individual nerve fibers

81
Q

nerve fibers holds

A

all or none concept

82
Q

nerve=

A

variable numbers of fibers can fire at any one time

83
Q

Microglia

A

phagocytes of the nervous system

84
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

myelin sheath of CNS

85
Q

Astrocytes

A

blood brain barrier

86
Q

Ependyma

A

lining of ventricles of brain and central canal of spinal cord

87
Q

Neuroglia

A

supportive cells (nerve glue)

88
Q

Schwann cells

A

myelin sheath of PNS, regeneration of neuronal fibers, form “living tube” of myelin around axons

89
Q

Myelin decreases sodium permeability 5,000x

A

true

90
Q

Saltatorial Conduction-depolarization only at the nodes

A
  1. increases rate of conduction-impulses “jumps” from node to node
  2. increases rate or repolarization- repolarization only at nodes
  3. decreases energy needed for repolarization- less Na+/K+ movement
91
Q

Relative rates of conduction

A

unmyelinated 0.5 meter/second
myelinated 100 meters/second

92
Q

Individual fascicles of a muscle are surrounded by the

A

perimysium

93
Q

During the absolute refectory period

A

the membrane cannot be restimulated

94
Q

Which of the following is the smallest unit
myofiber
myofibril
myofilament

A

myofilament

95
Q

The bundles of contractile proteins in the muscle cell are termed the

A

myofibrils

96
Q

Absolute

A

sodium inactivation gates closed- no additional stimulus can open force them open (as short as 1/2500 second in large myelinated fibers)

97
Q

Relative

A

some sodium channels still inactivated, potassium channels open above threshold stimulus can initiate depolarization

98
Q

Membrane stabilizing factors (anesthetics)

A

increased extracellular Ca++ - inhibits opening of sodium channels
increased K+- hyperpolarization

99
Q

Local anesthetics

A

procaine or tetracaine
block opening of sodium activation gates and prevent depolarization

Anatomy (6 decks)

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