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PHGY 209 > immunology > Flashcards

immunology Flashcards

1
Q

is the immune system big - explain

A

enormous
scattered throughout the body
connected by blood and lymph
not localized, very diffuse

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2
Q

describe the immune systems role in protection

A

protects whole body at all times
must reach all parts of body at the same time

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3
Q

what does immune system protect against

A

pathogens - bacteria, viruses, parasites
altered body cells - cancer

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4
Q

what happen when immune system turns on us

A

autoimmune disorders - own immune system sees you as foreign
foreign tissues: transplant or graft - immunosuppressant stops rejection

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5
Q

name the 2 prongs of immune system

A

non specific/innate immunity
specific/adaptive immunity
born with both

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6
Q

describe briefly innate/nonspecific immunity

A

first line of defence
does not need to recognize pathogen - nonspecific
same response each time it sees a pathogen

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7
Q

describe briefly specific/adaptive immunity

A

requires recognition of the pathogen
faster response when it sees the same pathogen again

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8
Q

describe the 3 mains way things are discovered in science

A

accidents of nature - like a stroke - reveals that stroke effects speech
leaps of faith - make observation and test
serendipity - happy accidents

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9
Q

name and describe something that was discovered by serendipity

A

Penicillin
fungus on plates
no other bacteria can grow there - discovered first antibiotic

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10
Q

name and describe something that was discovered by accidents of nature

A

SCID
lack of formation of immune system
david vetter
missing a specific cytokine important for different immune cells
injected with bone marrow from sister - but she had mononucleosis (epstein barr virus) and david died

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11
Q

describe aids (discovery)

A

80s in young men
HIV kills T helper cells
which are important in adaptive immune response

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12
Q

name and describe something that was discovered by leap of faith

A

smallpox vaccination
1796 - edward jenner
saw milkmaids had pox on hands but dont get small pox
they contracted cow pox
took puss of pox and injected into son and he did well
this caught on and people were doing this - saves lives

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13
Q

describe smallpox

A

dreadful infectious disease- killed over 300 million people and lasted for 3000 years and killed 30% of those who had it

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14
Q

is small pox still an issue

A

no
last man who had it in world = 1977 ali maow maalin - survived with treatment
2 other cases = accidental lab exposure - 1978 - one died
Eradicated in 1980

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15
Q

why is immunization called vaccination

A

Because smallpox virus = vaccinia virus - vaccine comes from cow pox

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16
Q

what are the 3 main components of immune system

A

lymphoid organs
immune cells - leukocytes
Secretions of immune cells - cytokines

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17
Q

describe types of lymphoid organs

A

primary lymphoid organs - sites where stem cells divide and immune cells develop
secondary lymphoid organs - sites where most immune responses occur

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18
Q

name types of sites of primary lymphoid organs

A

bone marrow (yolk sac and fetal liver in embryo)
thymus

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19
Q

describe bone marrow (primary lymphoid organs)

A

fetal liver in embryo - site of hematopoiesis
blood cells produced here - B cells and immature T cells
site where B cells mature

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20
Q

describe thymus (primary lymphoid organs)

A

located above heart
contains T cells, scattered dendritic cells, epithelial cells and macrophages
site where T cells mature
atrophies after maturity (small in old people)

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21
Q

name the 3 secondary lymphoid organs

A

lymph nodes - main site
spleen
lymphoid nodules

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22
Q

describe lymph nodes (secondary lymphoid organs)

A

scattered in body ~ 600 of them
biggest ` 1cm in size
filter microbes - filters and traps
macrophages in nodes phagocytize microbes that enter lymph
site where immune reponse occurs - carry back and fight in lymph nodes

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23
Q

describe spleen (secondary lymphoid organs)

A

largest lymphoid organ
removes microbes and old erythrocytes

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24
Q

describe lymphoid nodules (secondary lymphoid organs)

A

tonsils & adenoids at back of throat - help protect respiratory tract
peyers patches (in gut) and MALT (mucosal associated lymphoid tissues - at every place that contacts external environment)
appendix - part of SI

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25
Q

where do immune cells travel

A

blood and lymphatic vessels

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26
Q

what are immune cells

A

Leukocytes
white blood cells

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27
Q

why are they called B cells

A

remove bursa of chicken = no more b cells

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28
Q

describe the 2 lineages of wbcs

A

lymphoid or myeloid

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29
Q

what does lymphoid committed stem cell give rise to

A

lymphocytes =
T cells (cytotoxic T cells CD8+, helper T cells CD4
+, regulatory T cells CD4+)
B cells
NK cells

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30
Q

what does myeloid committed stem cell give rise to - form immune system

A

neutrophil
monocyte –> macrophage and dendritic cells
eosinophil
basophil

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31
Q

why are granulocytes important

A

release different components
like histamines - increase blood flow and allergic response
cytokines
effectors

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32
Q

which cells are granulocytes

A

esoinophils
basophils
mast cells

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33
Q

describe eosinophils

A

destroys parasites

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34
Q

describe basophils

A

release a variety of chemicals, histamine, prostaglandins

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35
Q

describe mast cells

A

release chemicals
histamines

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36
Q

describe neutrophils

A

phagocytes
first important one at site of infection

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37
Q

describe monocytes

A

become macrophages and dendritic cells (phagocytes)

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38
Q

when is immune system activated

A

when breach in barrier - at level of skin
allows pathogens to get into tissue
starts with nonspecific branch - things like inflammation

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39
Q

describe the nonspecific/innate immunity branch

A

ability of body to defend against microbes and other foreign substances without recognition of pathogen
first line of defence - physical barriers
second line of defence - cellular factors and humoral factors

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40
Q

define first line of defence and name the 3 components

A

barriers to skin and creating an unpleasant environment for microorganisms
Additional physical and mechanical barriers
Chemical and microbiological barriers

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41
Q

describe skin (first line of defence)

A

water resistant
prevents entry of foreign substances

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42
Q

describe additional physical and mechanical barriers
(first line of defence)

A

tight junctions in epithelia - like in gut
mucus
hair and cilia - lungs so move out stuff and wont be infected

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43
Q

describe chemical and microbiological barriers (first line of defence)

A

secretions - sebum, lysozyme, gastric juice
normal flora - microbiological components - help fight bacteria and infection

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44
Q

describe second line of defence - innate immunity

A

no memory - humoral factors
inflammation and fever
Antimicrobial substances - acute phase reactants (happen quick)= c reactive protein (produced by liver in response to inflammation), complement, cytokines
interferons
mobilize wbcs to site of infection to help fight off

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45
Q

what is inflammation

A

non specific response to tissue damage

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46
Q

what are 4 distinct signs and symptoms of inflammation

A

redness
heat
pain
swelling

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47
Q

what are 3 stages of inflammation

A

vasodilation
emigration of phagocytes
tissue repair

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48
Q

describe vasodilation (inflammation)

A

Widening of blood vessels allow more blood to flow to site
increased permeability of capillaries allows substances to go to damaged site
stretch of capillary and endothelial cells allows more fluid to move into tissues

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49
Q

what are humoral substances

A

Discourage microbial growth or spread of pathogen

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50
Q

name the 3 humoral substances

A

interferons
complement
iron binding proteins

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51
Q

describe interferons (humoral substances)

A

antiviral proteins

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52
Q

what does type 1 interferon prevent

A

viral replication

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53
Q

describe how type 1 interferon prevents viral replication

A

usually - viruses come in and use DNA to replicate then cells die and virus particles go on to infect other cells
cell detects virus and secretes interferons
these have receptors and when activated causes cell to produce antiviral proteins - these prevent virsu from using cell to replicate

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54
Q

describe complement (humoral substances)

A

large family of plasma proteins with multiple functions
30 different proteins participate in the immune cascades

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55
Q

describe pathway of innate immunity for complement

A

pathogen surfaces –> complement activation (C3b) –> opsonization of pathogens = bind to surface of bacteria and prepare for eating

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56
Q

describe function of complement C3b as an opsonin

A

C3b receptor
C3b sticks to bacteria and makes it easier for phagocytes to recognize foreign cell and ingest bacteria

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57
Q

describe iron binding proteins (humoral substances)

A

transferrin
very important for bacterial infection
non specific response will sequester iron and want to keep it away from infection - makes it harder for bacteria to divide since it wont have enough iron

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58
Q

what does bacteria in blood lead to

A

sepsis
so bacteria must travel in immune system

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59
Q

what does opsonization mean

A

prepare for eating

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60
Q

describe how a monocyte becomes a macrophage or dendritic cell

A

moves out into tissues = macrophage
or
dendritic cells (called dendritic because fingerlike projections look like drendrites on neuronal cells)

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61
Q

what else does second line of defence include

A

cellular factors - Natural killer (NK) cells (lymphocytes) and phagocytes (neutrophils)

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62
Q

describe NK cells

A

class of lymphocytes - similar to cytotoxic t cells
target virus infected cells and cancer cells
attack and kill targets directly after binding tom them
not antigen specific - does not to recognize

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63
Q

describe how NK cells work

A

cells do not express MHC class 1
release chemicals that lead to death of infected or abnormal body cells
releases perforin - forms pores in cells and then granzymes go in to cell and destroy it

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64
Q

describe relationship between MHC class 1 and NK cells

A

MHC 1 proteins expressed on all normal nucleated body cells
recognized by NK cells and they will not kill it
altered or absent MHC1 proteins do not stimulate a negative signal
NK cell is activated and releases agents that kill the cell

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65
Q

what do phagocytes do

A

non specifically engulf microbial invaders

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66
Q

name 3 types of phagocytes

A

fixed tissue macrophages - already in tissues
neutrophils - will be recruited to site of injury
monocytes - macrophages and dendritic cells

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67
Q

name 4 steps of phagocytosis and intracellular destruction of a microbe

A

adherence
ingestion
digestion
killing

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68
Q

describe phagocytosis and intracellular destruction of a microbe

A

recognition from endosome & brings in bacteria in membrane bound compartment (endocytosis and phagosome formation) –> combines with lysosome (low pH destroys bacteria) –> forms phagolysosome –> release of end products into or out of cells –> debris and signals

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69
Q

how do phagocytes recognize microbes

A

Detects unique conserved structures that are essential to microbial physiology (molecular signature of infection)
bacteria has cell wall proteins that mammals do not have
called PAMPS (pathogen associated molecular patterns)

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70
Q

what are PAMPS

A

cell wall components that can be recognized - body doesnt express
lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of gram negative bacteria
peptidoglycan
(PGN) of gram positive bacteria

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71
Q

what are PAMPS recognized by

A

immune system receptors = pattern recognition receptors (PRR), including toll like receptors on the surface of the macrophage

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72
Q

what are toll like receptors

A

Family of highly conserved transmembrane receptors essential for microbial recognition via PAMPs
nonspecific event

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73
Q

name the 2 domains for TLRs (toll like receptors)

A

extracellular domain for recognition of pathogens
intracellular signalling domain

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74
Q

name things recognized by toll like receptors

A

lipoproteins
Peptidoglycans
dsDNA
flagellin
lipopolysaccharides

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75
Q

what starts process of inflammation

A

Signalling starting with toll like receptors

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76
Q

describe the starting process of inflammation

A

fixed tissue macrophages in tissues have TLRs on surface and they recognize bacteria (PAMPS) and sends signal
cytokines start inflammation process - neutrophils come first
signalling event starts inflammation

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77
Q

describe emigration of phagocytes (steps of inflammation) - informally

A

phagocytes go to capillary spaces
neutrophils move out and leave capillary to site of infection and pick up bacteria

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78
Q

name 3 processes of emigration of phagocytes (steps of inflammation)

A

chemotaxis
margination
diapedesis

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79
Q

describe chemotaxis (emigration of phagocytes)

A

chemically stimulated movement of phagocytes
chemokines/chemoattractants - attract phagocytes (neutrophils)

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80
Q

describe margination (emigration of phagocytes)

A

sticking to endothelial cell
neutrophils will adhere and stick

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81
Q

describe diapedesis (emigration of phagocytes)

A

phagocytes move across capillary wall
finger like projections between pores of endothelial cells and moves into tissue

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82
Q

describe specific role of neutrophils in inflammation

A

neutrophils die in process of killing bacteria
NETs- neutrophil extracellular traps are made of processed chromatin and bound to granular and selected cytoplasmic proteins which come from lysed neutrophils
leads to production of pus - mixture of dead bacteria and neutrophils

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83
Q

describe APCs (antigen presenting cells) - informally

A

more macrophages and dendritic cells - move to site of injury
take to lymph node and activate immune system
phagocytize some bacteria and bring back to lymph node and spleen to activate immune response

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84
Q

what are antigens aka

A

immunogen - material that induces an immune response
allergen - if inducing an allergic response
ligand - for activating system

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85
Q

what does antigen stand for

A

ANTIbody GENerator
antibodies bind to antigen

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86
Q

what can antigens be

A

whole cell or part of a cell
non microbial = pollen, egg whites, incompatible blood cells, transplanted tissues

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87
Q

what is epitope

A

part of antigen recognized by immune cell and part that binds to antibody

88
Q

what bridges gap between innate and adaptive immunity

A

dendritic cells - via antigen presentation by phagocytes
happens at lymph nodes
dendritic cell brings it back lymph node (region where other immune cells are)

89
Q

describe specific/adaptive immunity

A

mediated by antibodies or cells
humoral antibody mediated immunity and cell mediated immunity

90
Q

what is MHC

A

major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

91
Q

name the 2 classes of MHC

A

MHC-1 (HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C)
MHC-2 (HLA-DP,HLA-DQ, HLA-DR)
only twins can have the MHCs on their cells
Signature of self - no one else would have the same - very hard for transplants

92
Q

where is MHC-1 found

A

on all nucleated cells

93
Q

where is MHC-2 found

A

on all APCs (macrophages, dendritic cells, B cells)

94
Q

when do T cell receptors recognize antigens

A

only when they are associated with MHC-2 proteins (on surface)
part of antigen presentation process

95
Q

what do APCs present

A

present exogenous antigens with MHC-II
on surface of phagocyte

96
Q

describe steps of APC

A

ingest antigen
digestion into peptide fragments
synthesize and package MHC-II molecules
bind peptide fragments to MHC-II
insert antigen-MHC-II complexes on plasma membrane

97
Q

name and describe the 2 antigen characteristics of adaptive immunity (acquired, specific)

A

reactivity = antibody binds specifically to antigen that provoked it
immunogenicity - can provoke an immune response by producing antibody to that antigen

98
Q

which cells are APCs

A

MHC-II + antigen
interdigitating dendritic cell/ professional APC (carry antigen to regional lymph node and start process)
macrophage
B lymphocyte (cell)

99
Q

define specific/adaptive immunity

A

ability of body to defend against specific microbes and foreign substances
involves memory for previously encountered antigens

100
Q

which cells involved with adaptive/specific immunity

A

B and T cells
must recognize specific foreign material to be attacked

101
Q

what is an antigen

A

any molecule that can trigger an adaptive immune response against itself of the cell bearing it

102
Q

name 3 stages of typical adaptive immune response

A

recognition of an antigen by lymphocytes
lymphocyte activation
attack launched by the activated lymphocytes and their secretions (cytotoxic t cells - kill directly or plasma cells - secrete antibodies)

103
Q

describe humoral cells - specific/adaptive immunity

A

B cells
transform into plasma cells and produce and secrete antibodies
use antibodies and complement to kill

104
Q

describe cell mediated cells - specific/adaptive immunity

A

cytotoxic t cells kill infected cells
attack infected body cells, cancer cells, foreign cells

105
Q

describe origins of B cells and T cells

A

lymphoid stem cell –> immature T and B cells
T cells = go to thymus to mature
B cells - go to secondary lymphoid organs, needs activation by antigen
cells from T cells (cytotoxic cells) kill cells - must recognize antigen first
also have memory cells
B and T cells must recognize antigen
T helper cell needed to fully activate T and B cells

106
Q

describe process though lymph node

A

mature cells move into lymph bode
APC must find B and T cell to start process - it finds them
APC recognizes antigens
antigen recognized by specific receptors
expressed in T cells to have recognition
coreception required (B7-CD28 along with MHC-II
+ peptide -TCR)

107
Q

what is checkpoint inhibition

A

all biological processes need shut off controls
immune response involves displacement of CD28 from B7 by CTLA4 or PD-1

108
Q

describe checkpoint inhibition

A

T cell is binding to APC it will express MHC1 on surface - matches APC but eventually it will present new receptor (CTLA4 or PD-1 (similar)) and this is signal to turn off - no more t cells killing
in some cases = produce antibodies that are specific for CTLA4 or PD1 = will bind and prevent from being inactivated so T cells can keep killing - used in cancer therapy to kill cancerous cells

109
Q

describe a situation on an APC

A

MHC-1 on APC
activates T helper cells
B cell will only be activated if it recognizes antigen
and either directly or via cytokines will be activated by helper T cell

110
Q

describe humoral antibody mediated immunity (specific/adaptive immunity)

A

involves B cells (lymphocytes)
transform into plasma cells
synthesize and secrete antibodies
memory B cells - to respond faster
recognize pathogen

111
Q

describe cell mediated immunity (specific/adaptive immunity)

A

involves cytotoxic T cells - similar to NK cells
kills infected body cells, cancer cells, foreign cells

112
Q

what do macrophages do (to T helper cells)

A

at level of their endosome they can put together their own MHC class 2 molecule again with part of peptide (fragment of antigen) and carry it to regional lymph node
encounters T helper cells that have appropriate receptor on their surface

113
Q

what does APC-MHCII-ANTIGEN complex do when it moves to regional lymph node

A

activates T helper, cytotoxic T cells and B cells –> all these cells produce memory cells
B cells also need to be activated by interaction of with antigen but needs cytokines form T helper cells to fully activate (to produce plasma cells that secrete antibodies)

114
Q

name the 3 steps of activate T helper cells

A

1 - specific recognition (MHC2 +peptide-T cell receptor)
2 - co reception (CD28-B7)
cytokine release from APC (stimulates T helper cell)

115
Q

what type of cells are T helper cells and what does that mean

A

CD4+ cells
there is also some recognition event between APC and T helper cell with respect to CD4

116
Q

do B cells have to directly interact with APC

A

no

117
Q

can B cells act as APCS - explain

A

yes they can
they can process and present antigen to T helper cell
can take in some of pathogen and break out and present on surface via MHC class 2 and with help of CD$ molecule will activate T helper cell

118
Q

describe serum protein electrophoresis during infection and during normal

A

normal - super high peak in albumin, lower alpha 1, higher alpha 2, higher beta, low gamma globulin
infection - super high peak in albumin, lower alpha 1, higher alpha 2, higher beta, high peak gamma globulins (antibodies)

119
Q

describe plasma cells - EM and other factors

A

cytoplasm completely filled with membranous structures = ER (endoplasmic reticulum)
need this bc cells are essentially protein factors
only job = produce antibodies ~thousands/min
short life span ~ one week

120
Q

define antibodies

A

part of a group of proteins called globulins
immunoglobulins (Ig)

121
Q

what do antibodies contain

A

two identical heavy chains
two identical light chains

122
Q

what are regions of antibodies

A

variable region - variable heavy and light chain
constant region - handle at bottom

123
Q

describe variable region of antibodies

A

antigen binding site
FAB region
antigen binding fragment
hypervariable region

124
Q

describe constant region of antibodies

A

same in all antibodies of a class
Fc region
crystallizable fragment

125
Q

what is purpose of hypervariable region of variable region of antibodies

A

hyper variable regions must be different to recognize different antigens and give antibody specificity

126
Q

what is antibody class determined by

A

constant region, Fc
protein makeup

127
Q

name the 5 classes of antibodies

A

IgG
IgA
IgM
IgD
IgE

128
Q

describe structure of antibodies

A

Y shaped
globular

129
Q

describe IgGs

A

most numerous
cross the placenta (pass from mom to fetus)
small size
2 binding sites = divalent
peak in electrophoresis

130
Q

describe IgAs

A

found in MALT (mucosal associated tissues - anything in contact with outside world like lungs) and breast milk (passed from mom to nursing child)
4 binding sites = tetravalent
harder to move through body
dimer

131
Q

describe IgMs

A

first formed
complement activation (opens complement cascade)
decavalent
pentamer
harder to move through body

132
Q

describe IgDs

A

prenatal

133
Q

describe IgEs

A

allergy

134
Q

what is antibody mediated immunity carried out by

A

B cells

135
Q

describe how antibody mediated immunity is carried out

A

B cells become activated in spleen, lymphoid nodule or lymph node, (secondary lymphoid organ) in presence of microbe
undergo clonal selection (have right receptor and clone of B cell will be selected to produce more of them) to produce = plasma cells and memory cells

136
Q

what do memory cells allow

A

faster response if antigen is seen again

137
Q

name the 2 types of antibody immunity

A

actively or passively acquired

138
Q

describe actively acquired antibody immunity

A

the persons own immune system responds to microbe
long lasting protection - memory cells involved
natural or artificial

139
Q

describe passively acquired antibody immunity

A

person receives antibodies from another person or animal
temporary protection - no memory cells involved
natural or artificial

140
Q

describe types of actively acquired antibody immunity

A

natural = develops when person is exposed to an antigen by chance (ex=flu)
artificial = develops when person is purposefully exposed to antigen (ex=flu vaccine)

141
Q

describe types of passively acquired antibody immunity

A

natural = IgG from mother to fetus across placenta & IgA in breast milk
artificial = receive serum containing antibodies from person or animal that has been vaccinated (ex=ebola/covid)

142
Q

define active immunity

A

resistance due to bodys contact with microorganism, their toxins or other antigenic components (from infection or vaccine)

143
Q

what type of thing is active immunity

A

vaccine = may consist of small quantities of living or dead pathogens, small quantities of toxins or harmless antigenic molecules derived from microorganism or its toxin
does not cause disease but response (parts of immune response)

144
Q

describe general principle of active immunity

A

exposure to antigenic substance results in active immune response that induces formation of memory cells required for rapid, effective response to future infections by that particular organism (more robust)

145
Q

define passive immunity

A

direct transfer of antibodies from one person to another

146
Q

describe 2 examples of passive immunity

A

fetus receives maternal IgG antibodies that cross placenta
breast fed children receive IgA antibodies in moms milk (intestinal mucosa is permeable to IgA antibodies during early life - short, will get diluted out or used in system)

147
Q

what is important for infant during first months of life and why

A

passive immunity - sources of protection
antibody synthesizing capacity is relatively poor

148
Q

name the 6 antibody functions

A

Neutralizing Antigen
Agglutination of Antigens
Precipitation of Antigens
Activating Complement
Opsonization
Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity

149
Q

describe neutralizing antigen (antibody functions)

A

antibody binds to toxin released by antigen and prevents from infecting us - so toxin will not reach target

150
Q

what do mRNA vaccines do

A

allows your body to produce antigens

151
Q

describe agglutination of antigens (antibody functions)

A

glues them together
prevent from travelling and easier to phagocytize

152
Q

describe precipitation of antigens (antibody functions)

A

bring our of body fluid and hold them together
makes easier for phagocytosis
keeps antigen from preforming function

153
Q

describe activating complement (antibody functions)

A

starts out with fist complement protein (inactive) and leads to membrane attack complement
bacteria find matching antigen = activates C1 complement (first complement protein now active - activates C1)

154
Q

describe opsonization (antibody functions)

A

antibody binds microbe and opsonizes it
makes it more visible to phagocytes

155
Q

describe antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity (antibody functions)

A

via cytotoxic T cells
antigen response

156
Q

what are complements

A

serum proteins

157
Q

describe activating complement (antibody functions) - pathway

A

classical pathway - antigen antibody complexes –> complement activation –> opsonization of pathogens and killing of pathogens by membrane attack complex

158
Q

describe activation of classical complement pathway by antibody binding to bacterial antigen

A

set off cascade and activate other complement member in family
complement proteins serve as pores in cell and leads to death

159
Q

describe opsonization (antibody functions) in more detail

A

phagocytes have receptors specifically to FC branch of antibody
Recognition of antibody of certain class aids in phagocytosis

160
Q

describe graph of rate of antibody production following initial exposure to antigen (~ 4 stages)

A

1 month scale
slow in beginning = do not have many of the lymphocytes with appropriate receptor on surface
then expand clones and increase rate and number of production of antibodies
peaks = have antibodies present for variable amounts of time - depends on specific antigen
end = antibodies broken down and fade away - higher concentration than initial but not much higher since infection is over

161
Q

describe graph of rate of antibody production following subsequent exposure to same antigen

A

expanded clones and now have memory cells
so very rapid and much higher response that is longer lasting

162
Q

what are the 3 main adaptive immunity components

A

lymphocytes must gain immunocompetence - develop antigen receptors
B cells - produce antibodies
T cells - cytotoxic T cells (CD8+) and helper T cells (CD4+)

163
Q

why do we get sick

A

not fast enough or enough antibodies at first exposure

164
Q

name the 3 types of T cells

A

cytotoxic T cells= CD8+
helper T cells =CD4+
regulatory T cells = CD4+

165
Q

describe how lymphocytes develop antigen receptors

A

variable region on receptor has a variety of genes that encode for it = V,D, & J (joining)
each individual cell choses a V D and J segment
with help of RAGs
then choose one segment from constant region

166
Q

describe RAGs

A

recognize splice sites at beginning of different segments and put them together to produce one possible outcome
recombination activating genes

167
Q

what are TdT

A

Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase
can add single or multiple nucleotides at end of segments that have been joined
creates frameshift - so will have different output for that
allows infinite production of antigen receptors

168
Q

what type of antibodies are produced during response (graph) and why

A

IgM produced first = best to activate complement system but too big to move well so switch to IgGs
IgGs = memory cells and expanded clones
also others like IgAs

169
Q

describe process of making an antigen receptor

A

each choose V D J
use TdT to change receptor so its unique to specific B cell
M constant region to create IgM BUT can switch this constant region to a gamma segement to produce IgG

170
Q

can plasma cells produce different classes of antibodies and why

A

one one variable region that will determine specificity but plasma cells can produce different classes (by switching constant region)

171
Q

will the body create self antigens

A

usually - under normal circumstances = no

172
Q

what is one way to recognize self

A

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
unique to each person, except in identical twins, important in tissue/organ transplant rejection

173
Q

what is immune tolerance and explain

A

develops during fetal and early postnatal life due to clonal detection or clonal inactivation of cells that match body antigens
- basically get rid of any lymphocytes that have receptors that recognize own body

174
Q

describe development of T cell tolerance in utero in the thymus - 3 concepts

A

T cells must recognize MHCII molecules - any T cells that cannot will be negatively selected (destroyed)
T cells should not recognize self proteins, cells expressing own MHCI - will be negatively selected
95% of T cells produced will be destroyed bc they are self reactive

175
Q

how are T cells negatively selected (destroyed)

A

die by apoptosis

176
Q

do cytotoxic T cells need recognition of antigen

A

yes

177
Q

why do B and T cells response more rapidly if seeing same antigen

A

amplification due to production of memory cells

178
Q

name the 2 types of antigens

A

exogenous
endogenous

179
Q

describe endogenous antigens

A

produced by body cell
cytotoxic T cells must recognize it

180
Q

describe exogenous antigens

A

foreign material
comes from outside body

181
Q

name type of endogenous antigens and explain process

A

infected body cells (virally infected) =
synthesis of MHCI molecules
binding of peptide fragments to MHCI molecules
packing of antigen-MHCI complexes
insertion of antigen-MHCI complexes into plasma membrane

182
Q

name the type of exogenous antigens and explain process

A

antigen presenting cells =
synthesis of MHCII molecules
binding of peptide fragments to MHCII molecules
packing of antigen-MHCII complexes
insertion of antigen-MHCII complexes in plasma membrane

183
Q

describe process of cell mediated killing of virus infected cells

A

dendritic cell
intermediary = T cell receptor
T cell receptor releases cytokines = critical for activation of B cells and cytotoxic T cells
cytotoxic T cells must also recognize antigen
leads to killing of infected body cell by cytotoxic T cell (release of perforin and granzymes)

184
Q

what do infected body cells present antigens use to present antigens to cytotoxic T cells

A

MHCI
signal that own body cells are infected or altered

185
Q

describe how cytotoxic T cells kill virus infected cells

A

need cytokine from T help to lead to production and cell division then the many cells can kill using perforin and granzymes

186
Q

name the 5 factors that alter resistance to infection

A

protein calorie malnutrition
preexisting disease
stress and state of mind
sleep deprivation
modest exercise and physical conditioning

187
Q

describe protein calorie malnutrition (factors that alter resistance to infection)

A

greatest contributor to decreased resistance to infection worldwide
need appropriate materials to mount effective immune response

188
Q

describe preexisting disease (factors that alter resistance to infection)

A

like if already fighting infection
infectious or non-infectious- can predispose body to infection

189
Q

describe stress and state of mind (factors that alter resistance to infection)

A

can enhance or reduce resistance to infection and cancer

190
Q

describe sleep deprivation (factors that alter resistance to infection)

A

associated with decreased immune function

191
Q

describe modest exercise and physical conditioning (factors that alter resistance to infection)

A

net beneficial effects on immune system and host resistance

192
Q

why do immunodeficiency diseases happen

A

results from weak, underactive or impaired immune system
like missing proteins or cells in immune system

193
Q

describe SCID

A

severe combined immunodeficiency disease
immunodeficiency disease
a group of related diseases that arise from an absence of both B and T cells and some cases NK cells (could be caused by lack of cytokine needed for development of these cells)

194
Q

describe AIDS

A

acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
immunodeficiency disease
infects and kills helper T cells (which are central in inactivation of B cells and cytotoxic T cells) resulting in impaired immune responses to infectious organisms

195
Q

name 5 harmful immune responses

A

tissue/graft rejection
transfusion reactions
allergy - hypersensitivity
autoimmune disease
excessive inflammatory responses

196
Q

describe rejection of tissue grafts or organs - why it happens

A

MHC-I proteins on graft cells and MHC-II proteins on the macrophages differ from recipients
recipients T cells recognize MHC proteins as foreign and cytotoxic T cells with the aid of helper T cells kill cells with foreign MHCs

197
Q

how to avoid organ/tissue graft rejection.

A

radiation to eliminate dividing cells - rapidly dividing lymphocytes
drugs that kill actively dividing lymphocytes - decrease recipients T cell population
more susceptible to any other infections now

198
Q

what is cyclosporine

A

drug that can help avoid rejection
blocks cytokine production from helper T cells
eliminates signals for proliferation of helper and cytotoxic T cells

199
Q

what is a transfusion reaction

A

illness causes when rbcs are destroyed during blood transfusion

200
Q

why would transfusion reactions happen

A

rbcs do not have MHC proteins (since no nucleus) but have plasma membrane proteins and carbohydrates that function as antigens
ABO system and Rh erythrocyte-membrane antigens

201
Q

universal donor of blood

A

O

202
Q

universal recipient of blood

A

AB

203
Q

describe Rh factor

A

negative or positive
has medical important

204
Q

describe Rh factor during pregnancy

A

if mom is + and baby is -
mom will attack baby if their bloods mix
usually happens during childbirth
so drug given to mom to ensure that mom does not attack baby
prevents mom blood from targeting blood of fetus in future pregnancies

205
Q

describe blood group A (percentage of population, antigen on rbc and antibody in blood)

A

42%
Antigen on rbc = A
antibody in blood = anti-B

206
Q

describe blood group B (percentage of population, antigen on rbc and antibody in blood)

A

10%
Antigen on rbc = B
antibody in blood = anti-A

207
Q

describe blood group AB (percentage of population, antigen on rbc and antibody in blood)

A

3%
Antigen on rbc = A & B
antibody in blood = neither anti-A OR anti-B

208
Q

describe blood group O (percentage of population, antigen on rbc and antibody in blood)

A

45%
Antigen on rbc = NEITHER A or B
antibody in blood = BOTH anti-A and anti-B

209
Q

what is an allergic reaction

A

overly reactive to substance that most tolerate well
due to exogenous antigens
some people react to things that others will not

210
Q

name the 2 types of allergic reaction

A

immediate hypersensitivity
delayed hypersensitivity = appears 12-72 hours after allergen exposure

211
Q

describe function of mast cells in allergic reactions

A

mast cells filled with histamine granules
in small amounts histamine good since recruits immune cells to site of injury
too much = get into blood stream and systemic effect
also happens with basophils since also filled with histamine

212
Q

what is anaphylaxis

A

allergic symptoms usually localized to site of antigen entry
if large amounts of mast/basophil cells chemicals enter circulation = causes severe hypotension (low bp) and bronchiolar constriction = anaphylaxis = can cause death due to circulatory and respiratory failure

213
Q

what is autoimmune disease

A

inappropriate immune attack triggered by body proteins acting as antigens

214
Q

what is immune attack of autoimmune disease consist of

A

immune attack is mediated by autoantibodies and self reactive T cells
direct against body cells that contain these proteins (proteins acting as antigens)

215
Q

name 4 types of autoimmune diseases

A

type 1 diabetes mellitus
rheumatoid arthritis
multiple sclerosis
myasthenia gravis

216
Q

describe myasthenia gravis (autoimmune disease)

A

against a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor that is expresses on muscles
make antibodies against muscle receptors and leads to paralysis

217
Q

what can dampen immune response

A

regulatory T cells dampen immune response - possible research area for autoimmune diseases

PHGY 209 (19 decks)

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