Crime and Deviance Flashcards
What is crime?
Activities and behaviour that break the laws set out by the criminal justice system.
What is deviance?
Acts that go against the norms and values of society.
How is crime and deviance a social construction through cultural variation?
Cultural norms and values play a significant role in shaping the understanding and definitions of crime and deviance within a particular society
Different cultures have distinct values, beliefs, and customs that shape their understanding of acceptable behavior.
E.g. Public displays of affection are illegal in Dubai because of the Islamic culture and may be punished with imprisonment.
Cultural variation plays a role in determining the severity of social sanctions imposed on individuals who engage in deviant or criminal behavior.
Deviance and crime are often defined based on these cultural expectations.
How is crime and deviance a social construction through legal system variation?
Legal systems determine the range of punishments for criminal offenses.
The severity of penalties can vary significantly across different jurisdictions.
Different legal systems may prioritize rehabilitation, deterrence, or retribution, leading to variations in sentencing practices.
E.g. The sentence for a theft offence in the UK is a max of 7 years, US is max 3 years.
This variation influences the social construction of crime and deviance by shaping the consequences individuals face for engaging in certain behaviors.
How is crime and deviance a social construction through historical variation?
The categorisation of certain behaviors as criminal or deviant have evolved through time because social norms and values change over time, and what was once considered deviant or criminal may no longer be seen as such.
Historical variations in crime and deviance are often influenced by social movements and activism which challenge existing norms, advocate for the redefinition of what is considered deviant or criminal behavior.
E.g. The civil rights movement was a nonviolent social movement from 1954 to 1968 in the United States to abolish legalised racial segregation and discrimination in the country.
The construction of crime and deviance is influenced by social, political, and economic factors that vary across different historical periods.
Historical contexts contribute to the understanding and construction of crime and deviance within different historical periods.
How is crime and deviance a social construction through power dynamic variation?
Power dynamics contribute to the marginalization of individuals or groups labeled as deviant or criminal.
Powerful groups have the ability to define and reinforce social norms, and they may stigmatize certain behaviors or identities that challenge their authority or interests.
This stigmatization can perpetuate social inequalities and further marginalize already disadvantaged populations.
E.g Laws criminalising homosexuality were rooted in religious beliefs and moral codes that were upheld by powerful religious institutions which had significant influence in the construction of deviance and criminality. Those who deviated from the heteronormative standards were subjected to legal persecution.
Power imbalances can result in unequal treatment and differential enforcement of laws, leading to disparities in how different individuals or groups are labeled, prosecuted, and sentenced.
How is maternal deprivation by John Bowlby a psychological reason for why people commit crimes?
Maternal deprivation refers to the absence or loss of a nurturing and secure mother figure during early childhood.
This can disrupt the formation of secure attachments between a child and their primary caregiver which are crucial for healthy emotional and social development.
Without this, individuals may struggle to form trusting relationships and manage emotions.
These attachment issues can contribute to a range of psychological problems, including aggression, impulsivity, and a higher likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior.
E.g In Bowlby’s study “Forty-Four Juvenile Thieves: Their Characters and Home Life.”: he found that a significant number of the young offenders had experienced early separation from their mothers or had a disrupted attachment with their primary caregivers.
These emotional regulation difficulties can make individuals more prone to engaging in criminal acts as a way to cope with or express their pent-up emotions.
How is tripartite personality by Sigmund Freud, a psychological reason for why people commit crimes?
Suggests that the human psyche is composed of three distinct components:
The id - represents the primitive and instinctual part of the psyche that operates on the pleasure principle. It seeks immediate gratification of basic desires and urges, without considering societal norms or consequences. If the id dominates a person’s personality and is poorly regulated, they may be more inclined to engage in criminal acts to fulfill their immediate needs or desires.
The ego - mediates between the demands of the id, the superego, and the realities of the external world. An underdeveloped or weak ego may struggle to effectively manage conflicting desires and impulses, leading to poor decision-making and a lack of impulse control. This can potentially contribute to criminal behavior, as individuals may have difficulty weighing the long-term consequences of their actions.
The superego - acts as the conscience, enforcing societal norms and values. An excessively strict or harsh superego may lead to feelings of guilt, shame, or low self-worth. This can create internal conflicts and a desire to rebel against societal expectations, potentially manifesting in criminal behaviour.
How is mental abnormality a psychological reason for why people commit crimes?
Some mental disorders can impair an individual’s ability to make sound judgments and control their impulses.
This is because they may affect cognition and decision-making - individual may be unable to consider the consequences of their actions so may inhibit impulsive or aggressive behavior
E.g. In the study “Mental Disorders and Criminal Behavior” by Fazel and Co (2011) they found that mental disorders were more common among individuals involved in criminal behavior.
When illnesses are untreated due to various factors, including limited access to mental health services their symptoms may worsen and contribute to a higher risk of engaging in criminal behavior.
The lack of impulse control can increase the likelihood of engaging in criminal acts.
How is human evolution a biological reason for why people commit crimes?
Throughout human evolution, risk taking and competition have played a role in survival and reproduction.
Our ancestors needed to compete for resources, protect their territories, and ensure the survival of their offspring.
In modern society, certain individuals may exhibit heightened risk-taking tendencies, which can increase the likelihood of criminal acts with high potential rewards.
What is Durkheim’s view on crime?
Durkheim theorised crime was inevitable and a normal aspect of social life as every member of society cannot be equally committed to the value consensus because are they are exposed to different influences and circumstances.
Crime has positive functions:
* Social regulation - the punishment of crime makes it clear that a particular action is unacceptable therefore, reaffirming the boundaries of acceptable behaviour.
* Social integration - strengthens social cohesion as when crimes are committed the whole community joins together in outrage.
* Social change - crime tests the boundaries of acceptable behaviour so therefore, helps the law to reflect the wishes of the population and legitimising social change.
E.g. Social change - In 1885, the Criminal Law Amendment Act made consent in homosexual acts criminal. However, the Sexual Offences Act 1967 decriminalised such behaviour between those aged 21 and over and in 2000 it was reduced to 16.
Durkheim argued that crime only became dysfunctional when there was too much as social order would break down or too little of it as there would not be sufficient capacity for positive social change.
According to Durkheim, why do people not conform to the values of society?
Socialisation: The upbringing of someone determines their basic values, therefore poor upbringing may result in a rise in crime and deviance.
Social change: as society changes, fragmentation can occur which could make it difficult for people to comply with the rules and therefore crime and deviance could rise. The consequence of this is called anomie.
This is an anomie meaning the compliance of core values are weakened, as society becomes more modern and views differ there becomes a breakdown of social cohesion.
What are the criticisms of Durkheim’s view on crime?
Critics argue that his focus on social integration and moral regulation neglects the individual experiences, desires, and psychological processes that may contribute to criminal behavior.
Durkheim ignores the ways in which power imbalances, social injustices, and structural factors contribute to criminal behavior and the differential treatment of individuals within the criminal justice system.
What is Robert Merton’s view on crime?
Strain Theory
According to Merton’s strain theory, crime and deviant behavior are a result of the strain or tension individuals experience when they are unable to achieve socially accepted goals through legitimate means.
Merton argued that society places a strong emphasis on achieving cultural goals such as wealth, success, and status but not everyone has equal access to the means necessary to achieve these goals, such as education, employment opportunities, and social support.
Merton identified five possible ways individuals respond to the strain between their aspirations for success and the limited opportunities available to them. E.g.
* Conformity: Individuals accept both the cultural goals and the legitimate means to achieve them. They strive for success through conventional means, such as education and hard work.
* Rebellion: Individuals reject the cultural goals and the legitimate means but substitute them with alternative goals and means where they may seek to change the existing social order and create a new system.
E.g. Terence P. Thornberry’s study “The Impact of Neighborhood Disadvantage on Adolescent Development” found that individuals who grow up in disadvantaged neighborhoods, where social disorganization and limited resources are prevalent, may be more likely to reject conventional values.
it highlights the role of social structures and the unequal distribution of opportunities in shaping criminal behavior.
What are the criticisms of Robert Merton’s view on crime?
Strain Theory
Critics argue that Merton’s theory places excessive emphasis on economic goals as the primary motivation for criminal behavior whereas other factors, such as personal gratification or thrill-seeking can also contribute to criminal behavior, which strain theory does not adequately address.
Merton’s theory focuses primarily on lower-class individuals and assumes that everyone aspires to the same cultural goals so the theory may not fully explain criminal behavior among other social classes who have alternative goals or aspirations.
What is Hirschi’s view on crime?
Hirschi’s social control theory emphasizes the importance of social bonds and socialization in preventing criminal behavior.
He argues that individuals are naturally inclined to pursue their own self-interests and engage in deviant or criminal behavior if not adequately controlled by social bonds.
He identified four elements of social bonds that influence an individual’s propensity for criminal behavior. E.g
* Attachment: Individuals who have strong emotional bonds and attachments to social institutions are more likely to conform to societal norms and values.
* Involvement: Individuals who are heavily involved in productive activities, such as school or work have less time to engage in criminal behavior and more time to achieve personal satisfaction and rewards.
It suggests that individuals who have weak or broken social bonds are more prone to engage in criminal activities.
What are the criticisms of Herschi’s view on crime?
Critics argue that social control theory does not explain why some individuals with strong social bonds still engage in criminal behavior, while others with weak bonds do not therefore, not accounting for individual variations.
His view neglects the influence of broader structural factors, such as inequality or systemic discrimination that shape opportunities and constraints for individuals, possibly leading them to engage in criminal behavior.
How does the Status Frustration Subcultural theory by Cohen help explain non-utilitarian crimes?
Argues that individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds face strain and frustration resulting from their inability to meet the standards and expectations of mainstream society.
The conventional goals of success, such as educational achievement or upward mobility, may seem unattainable due to various social and economic barriers.
In response to status frustration, Cohen argues that individuals may form or join subcultures that provide an alternative set of values and norms that reject mainstream societal goals and may develop their own alternative status hierarchy based on different criteria.
Non-utilitarian crimes, such as vandalism, gang violence, or drug use, can be seen as acts that establish status within these subcultures, as they provide an alternative means of achieving recognition and respect.
E.g. Albert K. Cohen’s study “Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang” (1955) found that delinquent boys responded to their status frustration by forming criminal subcultures.
Delinquent behavior arises as a way for individuals to overcome their status frustration and gain status within their subculture.
What are the criticisms of the Status Frustration Subcultural theory by Cohen?
Critics argue that Cohen’s theory focuses primarily on so it doesn’t fully explain non-utilitarian crimes among other social therefore, it fails to provide a broad and comprehensive explanation for non-utilitarian crimes.
Critics argue that Cohen’s theory presents a simplistic view of subcultures, treating them as homogeneous entities with shared values and norms. In reality, subcultures can be diverse and dynamic, with varying degrees of conformity to or deviation from societal norms.
How does the Illegitimate Opportunity Structure Subcultural theory by Cloward and Ohlin help explain non-utilitarian crimes?
Expands upon the earlier work of Albert K. Cohen’s Subcultural theory.
Suggests that those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds face limited access to legitimate opportunities, such as education, employment, or social mobility.
Emphasizes that individuals learn the norms, values, and techniques of criminal behavior through socialization processes within their respective subcultures.
E.g. research conducted by Robert J. Sampson and William Julius Wilson “Crime and the Structural Constraints of Urban Poverty” (1995) found that limited economic opportunities undermined social organization, weakened community institutions, and created an environment conducive to criminal behavior.
They argue that in areas with limited legitimate opportunities, an alternative “illegitimate opportunity structure” may emerge where non-utilitarian crimes such as drug trafficking are committed to achieve success and status within the community.
What are the criticisms of the Illegitimate Opportunity Structure Subcultural theory by Cloward and Ohlin?
Critics argue that it downplays the role of individual agency and personal motivations, failing to adequately account for variations in criminal behavior within different subcultural groups.
Some critics argue that Cloward and Ohlin’s theory lacks sufficient empirical evidence to support its claims meaning there have been challenges in establishing direct causal links between the illegitimate opportunity structure, subcultural dynamics, and non-utilitarian crimes.
How does the Focal Concerns Structure Subcultural theory by Miller help explain non-utilitarian crimes?
Focal concerns: Miller identifies six focal concerns that he argues are prevalent in lower-class culture.
E.g Toughness, which is when Lower-class culture places a high value on the ability to withstand and respond aggressively to threats or challenges which can cause violent non-utilitarian crimes, and autonomy, which refers to the desire for independence and freedom from authority as lower-class communities, may have limited control over their lives and may lead to acts of rebellion against societal norms and rules.
Miller suggests that these focal concerns are transmitted through socialization within lower-class communities in which the values transmitted may clash with the values and expectations of the larger society causing cultural conflict.
What are the criticisms of the Focal Concerns Structure Subcultural theory by Miller?
Miller’s theory tends to stereotype lower-class individuals by suggesting that they possess distinct focal concerns therefore, it overlooks the diversity within lower-class communities and fails to account for individual variations in attitudes and behaviors.
Miller’s theory does not adequately address the role of gender in shaping focal concerns and non-utilitarian crimes which is critical because the socialization processes of males and females within subcultures can influence their attitudes and behaviors.
Explain Beckers’s labelling theory regarding crime and deviance.
According to labeling theory, deviance is not an inherent quality of an act or individual but is rather a product of societal reactions.
It suggests that deviance and criminal behavior are socially constructed through a process of social labeling, where individuals are labeled as deviant or criminal based on how others perceive and react to their actions.
After being labeled, individuals may internalize the deviant label and adopt it as part of their self-identity. They may associate with other labeled individuals, form subcultures, and engage in further deviant behavior as a response to societal rejection and exclusion.
emphasizes the social construction of deviance and the significance of societal reactions in shaping individuals’ behavior and social identity.
Explain Cicourel’s theory of how labels lead to typifications.
builds upon Becker’s labeling theory and focuses on how labels lead to typifications, which are generalizations or stereotypes formed by social control agents, such as police officers.
When social control agents encounter individuals who are suspected of deviant or criminal behavior, they rely on preconceived typifications to make judgments about the person’s guilt or innocence.
E.g. in the Central Park jogger case it was assumed that the defendants were involved in criminal activity because of their race. This shows how appearance may determine criminality.
Cicourel argues that typifications are not objective or based on concrete evidence but are socially constructed and influenced by various factors, including their appearance, demeanor, and behavior, as well as the social context in which the interaction takes place.
These typifications can lead to biased judgments and differential treatment of individuals based on their social characteristics.
Explain Jock Young’s view of the consequences of labelling.
Young’s view builds upon labeling theory and focuses on the long-term effects of the labeling process on individuals and society as a whole.
Young suggests that labeling can lead to a “career deviance” trajectory. Once labeled, individuals may find it increasingly difficult to escape the deviant identity, as they face ongoing scrutiny and surveillance from authorities.
The label becomes a master status that overshadows other aspects of their identity, making it challenging to reintegrate into mainstream society or pursue legitimate opportunities. This can result in a lifelong involvement in deviant behavior.
E.g anyone cautioned or convicted for a sexual offence is put on the sex offenders register therefore, may find it difficult to find employment.
It emphasizes the role of labeling in amplifying deviant behavior, perpetuating social inequality, and contributing to the formation of deviant subcultures.
Explain Braithwaite’s view of the consequences of labelling.
Developed the theory of reintegrative shaming as an alternative perspective on the consequences of labeling. He suggests that labeling can have both negative and positive effects, depending on the nature of the social response to deviant behavior.
Braithwaite acknowledges that labeling can result in stigmatization and social exclusion for those who are labeled as deviant.
The negative consequences of labeling occur when society employs a “disintegrative shaming” approach, where individuals are publicly stigmatized, humiliated, and permanently marked as deviant. This disintegrative shaming can lead to feelings of shame, loss of self-esteem, and a deepening of deviant behavior.
E.g. Adult offenders had a proven reoffending rate of 24.0% in 2021.
He also proposes a more positive approach called “reintegrative shaming.” This approach involves offering opportunities for the individual to reintegrate into society after the condemning of their behaviour. Reintegrative shaming emphasizes the importance of social forgiveness, acceptance, and support. It seeks to maintain the individual’s sense of worth and social bonds while addressing the harm caused by the deviant act.
Braithwaite’s view of the consequences of labeling highlights the importance of societal responses to deviance and crime.
What are the criticisms of the use of the labelling theory as an explanation for crime and deviance?
Critics argue that labeling theory places too much emphasis on the societal reaction to deviance and overlooks the underlying causes of deviant behavior.This may be poverty, inequality, and social disorganization. By focusing solely on the process of labeling and societal reactions, the theory may fail to provide a comprehensive explanation of crime and deviance.
Labeling theory tends to portray individuals as passive recipients of labels and social reactions, neglecting the role of individual agency in shaping behavior. Critics argue that individuals have the capacity to make choices and exercise agency in their actions, independent of societal labeling.
It may be argued that crime is constructed by mental abnormality because it may impair a person’s cognition and decision-making ability to consider the consequences of actions so may inhibit deviant behaviour therefore, crime is not just a social construction.
The fact that typifications only considers the actions of individuals and not external factors such as poverty and deprivation the usefulness of the labelling theory is limited as these factors may contribute to the cause of criminal activity.
What is the Marxist view on crime?
Marxists claim that crime is a result of structural conditions created by capitalism. They argue that capitalism inherently produces inequality because it is a tool to pursuit individual self-interests which can lead to an unequal distribution of resources and alienation, all of which can contribute to criminal behavior.
They claim that the criminal justice system and laws are instruments used by the ruling class to maintain their power and protect their interests. They argue that laws are not neutral or objective but are shaped by the dominant class to criminalize behaviours that threaten their power.
E.g. Under the Taxation of Chargeable Gains Act 1992 House owners can sometimes avoid paying capital gains tax or higher stamp duty when selling or transferring a second home or buy-to-let property to children.
They contend that the focus on individual deviance and punishment diverts attention away from the structural causes of crime, reinforcing the status quo and preventing larger social change.
According to Marxists, how does crime maintain social inequality?
(Chambliss)
Chambliss argues that the legal system selectively makes laws, focusing more on certain types of offenses committed by specific groups.
Laws are applied more rigorously against the lower classes, racial and ethnic minorities, and other marginalized groups, while the actions of the powerful and elite often go unpunished.
This differential enforcement creates a perception of crime being primarily associated with disadvantaged groups, reinforcing stereotypes and justifying social control measures against them.
Chambliss claims that the selective making of laws is a result of the ruling class possessing the power and influence to shape the legal system to their advantage.
E.g. According to the Public Policy Research study, 7% of all MPs can be considered “working class”.
They can pressure lawmakers, influence policy decisions, and use their resources to avoid legal consequences. In contrast, marginalized groups lack the same access to power and resources, making them more vulnerable to criminalization and punishment.
According to Marxists, how does crime maintain social inequality?
(Reiman)
Reiman argues that the criminal justice system has biases that lead to selective law enforcement. These biases may include race, gender, class in the application of laws and punishments. Marginalized groups are more likely to be targeted by law enforcement, arrested, and subjected to harsher penalties compared to privileged groups.
Reiman claims that selective law enforcement is a product of broader structural inequalities in society. He argues that the criminal justice system reflects existing social and economic disparities.
E.g. Drugs and weapons offences are 2.3 times more prevalent in the most income-deprived areas of London compared to the least income-deprived in 2022.
Certain minority groups face socioeconomic disadvantages that increase their likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior. However, instead of addressing the underlying structural causes, the system focuses on punishment, reinforcing social inequality.
According to Marxists, how does the media’s depiction of crime prevent a revolution?
Marxists argue that the media often sensationalises crime, focusing on individual acts of deviance rather than examining the underlying social and economic conditions that contribute to criminal behavior.
By highlighting crimes and presenting them as isolated incidents, the media diverts attention from the systemic inequalities and injustices inherent in capitalist societies. This distraction prevents a broader understanding of the root causes of crime and impedes efforts to challenge the existing social order.
E.g. Harper & Hogue (2016) found that in the UK sex offenses were 2% of all crimes but 20% of all media stories about crime.
Marxists claim that the media, controlled by the ruling class, tends to portray revolutionary movements as criminal or deviant. By associating radical ideas or calls for social change with criminality, the media creates a negative perception of those who challenge the status quo. This demonization serves to discredit revolutionary movements, discourage public support, and maintain the existing power structures.
What are the criticisms of the Marxist view on crime?
Marxist view often emphasizes crimes committed by the economically disadvantaged, while downplaying the criminal activities of the ruling class. Critics argue that this narrow focus limits the explanatory power of the Marxist perspective in understanding the full range of criminal behavior.
Critics claim that crime can also stem from various non-economic factors, such as personal conflicts, psychological disorders, or subcultural influences. By downplaying these non-economic motivations, the Marxist perspective fails to provide a comprehensive understanding of criminal behavior.
Selective law making may be beneficial for the working-class as it can be used to establish and enforce labor laws that protect the rights of workers. E.g. laws related to fair wages and reasonable working hours.
Selective law enforcement may be beneficial for the working-class as a political party such as labour may implement policies that are advantageous for them.
Media coverage of crime can raise public awareness about various criminal activities, especially those that pose a significant threat to society therefore, safety measures can be implemented.
What is the neo-marxist view on crime?
They claim that capitalist societies create structural inequalities, with a small ruling class controlling the means of production and gaining wealth at the expense of the working class.
This unequal distribution of resources and opportunities can lead to feelings of deprivation, alienation, and frustration, which may contribute to criminal behavior as a form of resistance or survival.
This may lead to selective law enforcement.
E.g In their book “The New Criminology: For a Social Theory of Deviance,” Walton and Young argued that crime control mechanisms, such as policing and imprisonment, serve ideological functions in capitalist societies by diverting attention from underlying structural inequalities and shifting blame onto individuals and specific deviant behaviors.
This suggests that crime control measures often protect the interests of the ruling class and further entrench social inequalities.
According to this view, individuals are not solely responsible for their criminal actions but are shaped and constrained by the structural conditions in which they live.
What is the neo-marxist Stuart Hall’s view on crime?
Hall saw crime as socially constructed and defined based on the interests and priorities of those in power within capitalist societies.
He argued that criminal behaviors themselves are not inherently criminal, but become defined and labeled as such through political processes dominated by the middle and upper classes.
Hall viewed crime statistics and impressions of crime trends as socially manipulated tools used to promote particular agendas, like increasing law and order policies that serve middle-class interests.
E.g. Hall and his co-authors analyze the ideological functions of crime control strategies in “Policing the Crisis.” and argues that the construction of mugging as a moral panic allowed the state to justify the expansion of law enforcement and surveillance practices.
This aligns with the neomarxist view that crime control mechanisms serve to divert attention from systemic issues and maintain social order in a capitalist society.
What are the criticisms of the neo-marxist view on crime?
Neomarxist views may downplay the role of individual agency. By emphasizing structural determinism, critics argue that neomarxist perspectives may overlook the choices and motivations of individuals in engaging in criminal behavior. This critique suggests that a sole focus on structural factors can undermine the significance of personal accountability.
Some critics argue that Hall’s work does not adequately incorporate intersectionality, which refers to the interconnected nature of social categories such as race, gender, class, and sexuality. They contend that a more intersectional approach is needed to understand how various forms of oppression and identity intersect and shape experiences of crime and criminalization.
