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human anatomy & physiology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 2 divisions of regional anatomy?

A

axial (the axis), includes head neck and trunk

appendicular includes girdles (shoulder and pelvic) and limbs

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2
Q

The 4 quadrants of the abdomen and pelvis has the intersection point where?

A

naval (umbilicus)

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3
Q

The 9 regions of the abdomen and pelvis is made up of 4 planes, 2 horizontal at the _____________________, and anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) with 2 vertical mid clavicular lines

A

inferior border of the ribs (10)

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4
Q

What organs are in the upper right quadrant?

Test q

A

liver, gallbladder, and R kidney

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5
Q

What organs are in the lower right quadrant?

Test q

A

cecum, ilioceceal valve, appendix, and R ovary

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6
Q

What organs are in the upper left quadrant?

Test q

A

spleen and left kidney

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7
Q

What organs are in the lower left quadrant?

Test q

A

sigmoid colon and left ovary

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8
Q

What is the differance between surface and sectional anatomy?

A

surface anatomy is external surface of body w/o dissection

sectional anatomy is deep to the surface w/ dissection

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9
Q

Define longitudinal

A

Parallel to long axis of body or part

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10
Q

Define transverse section

A

Right angle to longitudinal axis of body or part

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11
Q

What other words can you use for superior?

A

Cephalad or cranial

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12
Q

What are the other words you can use for inferior?

A

Caudad or caudal

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13
Q

What are the 2 dorsal body cavities?

A

1) cranial cavity (brain enclosed by skull)
2) vertebral or spinal cavity (spinal cord enclosed by vertebral column)

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14
Q

What are the two ventral cavities?

A

1) thoracic cavity
2) abdominopelvic cavity

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15
Q

What cavities are found within the thoracic cavity?

A

pleural cavities (2)

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16
Q

What do the pleural cavities hold?

A

lungs

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17
Q

What is between the mediastinum?

test q

A

the pleural cavities

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18
Q

The mediastinum is split into…

A

superior and inferior parts

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19
Q

What is found within the superior mediastinum?

exam q

A

great vessels of the heart

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20
Q

The inferior mediastinum is split into….

Exam q

A

anterior, middle, and posterior parts

note: the middle is also called the pericardial and the heart is located here

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21
Q

What is found within the abdominal cavity?

A

digestive viscera

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22
Q

What is found within the pelvic cavity?

A

bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

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23
Q

What splits the thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity?

exam q

A

the diaphragm

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24
Q

Define variable

test q

A

factor or event that changes and is being regulated

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25
Q

Define set point

test q

A

optimal or ideal level at which a variable is to be maintained

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26
Q

What are homeostatic control mechanisms (HCS)?

A

physiologic systems that work to return variable to set point

note: the level of a variable fluctuates around its set point as the body attempts to optimize it

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27
Q

Define homeodynamics

A

maintenance of homeostasis as set points change in body as we grow and age

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28
Q

Define setting point

A

a set point at a particular time in one’s life

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29
Q

What are the 3 components of all homeostatic control systems (HCS)?

test q

A

1) sensory (receptor)
2) control (integrating) center
3) effector

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30
Q

What is the homeostatic control systems (HCS) pathway?

test q

A

stimulus (variable) > sensor (receptor) > info (input) > control (integrating) center > info (output) > effector > response

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31
Q

What are the 2 types of homeostatic control systems (HCS)?

A

intrinsic and extrinsic

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32
Q

One of the types of homeostatic control systems (HCS) is intrinsic. What does this mean?

A

self regulation of cells, tissues, organs

ex:
-intracrine (within)
-autocrine (outside, to itself)
-paracrine (nearby)

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33
Q

What does “crine” mean?

A

Greek for seperate or secrete

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34
Q

One of the types of homeostatic control systems (HCS) is extrinsic. What does this mean?

A

endocrine or NS (distant) regulation of cells, tissues, and organs

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35
Q

Feedback loops are what type of HCS?

A

extrinsic

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36
Q

What are the 3 types of feedback loops?

test q

A

1) negative
2) positive
3) feedforward control loop

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37
Q

What is the most predominant feedback loop?

test q

A

negative feedback

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38
Q

Which feedback loop is this?

Responds to (output) and feeds back to become new stimulus. The sensor monitors change, control center establishes set point for variable, and effector elicits a response. Then there is deceleration of the pathway

test q

A

negative feedback

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39
Q

Which feedback loop is this?

Responds to (output) and feeds back to become new stimulus. The sensor monitors change, control center establishes set point for variable, and effector elicits a response. Then there is acceleration of the pathway.

test q

A

positive feedback loop

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40
Q

What feedback loop is this?

Feedback loop (negative or positive) starts or stops in anticipation of stimuli. Control center establishes set point for variable, and effector elicits a response. Then the response feeds back to become new stimulus

test q

A

feed forward control loop

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41
Q

What is an atom?

test q

A

smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical properties of that element

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42
Q

What is an element?

test q

A

pure substance compound of only 1 type of atom

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43
Q

What is a molecule?

test q

A

smallest unit of a compound that retains the chemical properties of that compound

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44
Q

What is a compound?

test q

A

pure substance composed of 2+ types of atoms

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45
Q

What is an ion? What are the 2 types?

test q

A

atom or molecule that carries an electrical charge
1) cation (positive charge)
2) anion (negative charge)

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46
Q

The interaction of making or breaking bonds of reactive atoms is to achieve stability or ____________ by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons

A

homeostasis

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47
Q

Define metabolism

A

sum of all the biochemical reactions

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48
Q

What are the 2 types of metabolism?

A

1) anabolic (smaller to larger molecules)
2) cationic (large to small molecules)

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49
Q

Define metabolite

A

any substance produced in metabolism

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50
Q

Do inorganic compounds contain carbon?

test q

A

NO

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51
Q

What are 2 examples of inorganic compounds?

A

water and electrolytes

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52
Q

What are electrolytes/minerals?

A

substances that dissociate into ions (charged particles) when placed in solution and are able to conduct electrical current

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53
Q

What are 3 examples of electrolytes/minerals?

A

1) acids (release H+ ions)
2) bases (release OH- or combine w/ H+ ions)
3) salts (formed by reactions between acid and bases)

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54
Q

Do organic compounds contain carbon?

test q

A

YES

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55
Q

What are examples of organic compounds?

A

nutrients or other metabolites

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56
Q

What are the 4 types of nutrients we discussed in class?

A

1) carbohydrates (sugars)
2) lipids (fats and oils)
3) proteins
4) vitamins (coenzymes)

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57
Q

What are some examples of other metabolites that are organic compounds (not nutrients)?

A

nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), or ATP

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58
Q

Acids release what into solution?

A

H+ ions

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59
Q

Bases release what into solution?

A

OH- ions

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60
Q

How are salts formed?

A

by reaction between acid and base

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61
Q

pH is a relative measure of what ion concentration?

A

H+ ions (note: relatively small changes can have drastic effects on the body!)

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62
Q

What is neutral pH?

A

number of H+ = number of OH- ions

7 is neutral

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63
Q

What is acidic pH?

A

number of H+ > number of OH-

0-7 is acidic

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64
Q

What is basic/alkaline pH?

A

number of H+ < number of OH-

8-14 is basic/alkaline

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65
Q

A lipid is composed of fatty acids attached to a modified simple sugar called….

A

glycerol (a 3C alcohol)

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66
Q

What is a monoglyceride?

A

glycerol + 1 FA

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67
Q

What is a diglyceride?

A

glycerol + 2FAs

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68
Q

What is a triglyceride?

A

glycerol + 3FAs

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69
Q

What is a phospholipid?

A

diglyceride + phosphate group

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70
Q

What is a glycolipid?

A

diglyceride + carbohydrate group

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71
Q

Steroids are lipids w/ _____ interlocking hydrocarbon rings

A

4

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72
Q

What specific compound is the structural basis of manufacture of all steroids in the body?

A

cholesterol

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73
Q

What are the 2 types of steriods?

A

1) sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone)
2) corticosteroids (produced in the adrenal cortex- aldosterone, cortisol, and sex steroids)

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74
Q

What are the 3 sex hormones?

A

-estrogen
-progesterone
-testosterone

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75
Q

Where are corticosteroids produced? What are they?

A

in the adrenal cortex (aldosterone, cortisol, and sex steroids)

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76
Q

Proteins are chains of amino acids joined together by what type of bonds?

A

peptide bonds

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77
Q

What are the building blocks of protein?

A

amino acids

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78
Q

There are 20 amino acids in the body, ____ of which are essential (cannot be produced in body and must be consumed in the diet)

A

8

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79
Q

What are oligopeptides?

A

2-9 amino acids

80
Q

What are polypeptides?

A

10-49 amino acids (genes)

81
Q

How many amino acids make up proteins?

A

50+

82
Q

What are the 2 types of protein?

A

1) fibrous or structural proteins
2) globular or functional proteins

83
Q

What are the 4 characteristics of fibrous/structural proteins?

A

1) stands or sheets
2) insoluble
3) mechanical support
4) cytoskeleton (actin, keratin, tubulin filaments) and ECM (collagen, reticular, and elastic fibers)

84
Q

What are the 4 characteristics of globular/functional proteins?

A

1) sphere-like
2) soluble (in water)
3) chemically reactive
4) antibodies/immunoglobulins, neurotransmitters, hormones, and enzymes

85
Q

What type of protein are enzymes?

A

globular/functional proteins

86
Q

What are enzymes/ what do they do?

test q

A

specific catalysts that speed up a chemical reaction without being consumed (used up) or changed in the process

they speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy

87
Q

What are the 3 major regions of cells?

A

1) plasma membrane
2) cytoplasm (cytosol, organelles, inclusions)
3) nucleus

88
Q

What does the plasma/cell membrane separate?

A

intracellular from extracellular environment

89
Q

The plasma/cell membrane is selectively permeable and _____________

A

amphipathic (both hydrophilic and hydrophobic)

90
Q

What is the fluid mosaic model?

A

plasma membrane has a bilayer (double) layer of phospholipids molecules with protein molecules dispersed within it

the plasma membrane is constantly changing mosaic pattern (number and arrangement) of these protein molecules

91
Q

What are the proteins in the cell membrane?

A

-transmembrane (integral) proteins span the entire width
-peripheral proteins are on the outside or inside surface

92
Q

What are the 3 types of transmembrane proteins?

A

1) carrier (functional/globular)
2) channel (functional/globular)
3) junction (structural/fibrous)

93
Q

Is a carrier protein a functional/globular protein or structural/fibrous protein?

A

functional/globular

94
Q

Is a channel protein a functional/globular protein or structural/fibrous protein?

A

functional/globular

95
Q

Is a junction protein a functional/globular protein or structural/fibrous protein?

A

structural/fibrous

96
Q

What are the 3 types of peripheral proteins?

A

1) attachment (structural/fibrous)
2) receptor (outside, functional/globular)
3) enzyme (inside, functional/globular)

97
Q

Is a receptor a functional/globular protein or structural/fibrous protein?

A

functional/globular

98
Q

Is an enzyme protein a functional/globular protein or structural/fibrous protein?

A

functional/globular

99
Q

What are the 2 types of channel proteins?

A

-ungated (leaky, always open) channels
-gated channels

100
Q

What is the difference between voltage gated channels and chemical (ligand) gated channels?

A

voltage gated channels open/close depending on the membrane potential (the charges move the gate of the channel protein)

chemical (ligand) gated channels open/close depending on binding of a primary messenger molecule to the channel protein (ligand/chemical changed the shape of the channel protein)

101
Q

The body can be divided into 2 fluid compartments. What are they?

test q

A

intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF)

102
Q

What is intracellular fluid? What ions are found here?

test q

A

fluid inside the cell

contains large amounts of potassium, magnesium, and phosphate ions

103
Q

What are the 2 variations of ECF?

A

-interstitial fluid = between cells
-intravascular fluid= within blood vessels

104
Q

What is ECF? What ions are found here?

test q

A

fluid outside of the cell, contains large amounts of sodium, chloride, calcium, and bicarbonate ions

also contains nutrients and gases, fatty acids, amino acids, and oxygen/carbon dioxide

105
Q

What is a tissue?

A

a group of cells, similar in structure that perform a common or related function

106
Q

What are the 4 tissue types?

A

1) epithelial (covers body surfaces, lines cavities and tubular structure, makes up glands)
2) connective (support, wrap, and bind)
3) muscular (contraction to produce movement)
4) nervous (electrical impulse transmission)

107
Q

What are the characteristics of epithelial tissue (ET)?

A

-basement membrane (a complex structural border between ET and underlying CT
-vascularity (no blood vessels, nerves are present)
-regeneration (highly regenerative!!!)

108
Q

What are glands?

A

1+ cells that are specialized for secretion and produce/secrete substances

109
Q

What are the 2 major types of glands?

A

endocrine and exocrine glands

110
Q

Which glands have ducts?

A

exocrine glands

111
Q

Which glands are ductless?

A

endocrine glands

112
Q

Which glands secrete hormones?

A

endocrine glands

113
Q

Which glands secretes non-hormonal substances?

A

exocrine glands

114
Q

Connective tissue packages organs and blood vessels, forms underlayment of skin, and makes up….

A

tendons, ligaments, joints, cartilage, bone, and blood

115
Q

What are the 2 main components of CT?

A

specialized cells and extracellular matrix

116
Q

What makes up the ECM in CT?

A

ground substance (water, glycoproteins, and GAGs (hyaluronic acid + glucosamine)) and fibers (fibrous or structural proteins)

117
Q

Epithelial membranes are made up of what tissue sheets?

A

epithelial and connective tissue

118
Q

epithelial membranes are cutaneous. What does this mean?

A

skin!

119
Q

Epithelial membranes secrete mucus and….

A

serous fluid

120
Q

connective tissue membranes contain what tissue sheets?

A

CT only

121
Q

connective tissue is found within the meninges. What is the purpose here?

A

to protect the brain and spinal cord

122
Q

Connective tissue produces __________ fluid

A

synovial

123
Q

Serosa or serous membranes produce lubricating fluid that allows organs to….

A

reduce friction

124
Q

What does the viscera cover?

A

organs

125
Q

What does the parietal membrane cover?

A

lines wall of body cavities

126
Q

serous membranes are usually named after the body cavity they are located in
-pleura= ?
-pericardium= heart
=peritoneum =?

A

pleura= lungs
peritoneum = abdominopelvic organs

127
Q

Muscular tissue makes up the flesh of the body cavity, the heart, and the walls of hollow visceral organs. What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?

A

1) skeletal (voluntary or striated)
2) cardiac
3) smooth (visceral)

128
Q

Nervous tissue makes up the cells of the nervous system. What are the cell types of the nervous system (NS)?

A

1) neurons or nerve cells
2) neuroglia (“nerve glue”) or glial cells

129
Q

What are the structural units of the NS?

A

neurons

130
Q

Neurons generate and conduct _____________________ impulses

A

electrochemical

131
Q

Are glial cells conductive or nonconductive?

A

nonconductive

132
Q

What do glial cells do?

A

support and protect neurons

133
Q

The integumentary system is composed of….

test q

A

-skin (epidermal and dermal regions)
-sensory receptors
-accessory organs (glands with oil or sweat, hair, and nails)

134
Q

What are the 6 functions of the integumentary system?

A

1) protection (chemical, physical, or biological)
2) temperature regulation
3) sensation
4) chemical conversions (vitamin D precursor)
5) blood reservoir (large volumes of blood)
6) excretion

135
Q

What are the 2 regions of the skin?

test q

A

epidermis and dermis

136
Q

The epidermis is the superficial layer of the skin and contains epithelial cells. It is avascular. What epithelia is found here along with CT?

A

stratified squamous keratinized epithelia

137
Q

The dermis is the deep layer of the skin and contains fibrous CT. It is vascular. What CT is found here?

A

proper loose areolar CT and proper dense irregular CT

138
Q

The hypodermis is found below the dermis and is also called the subcutaneous layer. Is this a part of the skin?

test q

A

NO!

139
Q

The hypodermis is found below the dermis and is also called the subcutaneous layer. The hypodermis is not a part of the skin. It is primarily what tissue?

A

adipose CT

140
Q

The hypodermis is found below the dermis and is also called the subcutaneous layer. The hypodermis is not a part of the skin. It is primarily adipose CT. What does the hypodermis do?

A

anchors skin to fascia of skeletal muscles (epimysium)

141
Q

What is keratin?

A

a fibrous or structural protein that protects the skin

142
Q

What are keratinocytes?

A

“hornlike cells”, arranged in 4-5 layers in various stages of development that comprise the epidermis and produce keratin

143
Q

What are the layers of the epidermis superficial to deep?

test q

A

come lets get sun burnt (thick skin)

1) stratum corneum (“horny”)
2) stratum lucidum (THICK SKIN ONLY, “clear”)
3) stratum granulosum (“granular”)
4) stratum spinosum (“spiney”)
5) stratum basale (“base”)

144
Q

What is the outermost layer of the epidermis?

A

stratum corneum

145
Q

What is the function of the stratum corneum (superfical layer of the epidermis)?

A

protection (there are flat dead keratinocytes here that rub off/shed)

146
Q

What is the difference between thin and thick skin?

A

thick= 5 layers of keratinocytes
thin = 4 layers

the layer that is not present in thin skin is stratum lucideum

147
Q

Which layer of the epidermis is water repellent?

A

stratum granulosum

148
Q

What are the functions of stratum spinosum/what cells are found here (one of the layers of the epidermis)?

A

-cells are covered with thorn-like spines for strength and flexibility
-contains langerhans dendritic cells (a type of phagocytic antigen presenting immune cell)
-melanin pigment

149
Q

What is the deepest layer of the epidermis?

Test q

A

stratum basale (contains a single row of cells for cell reproduction)

150
Q

What cells are found at the stratum basale (deepest layer of skin) and what are the cells functions?

test q

A

-melanocytes secrete melanin pigment
-merkel cells are present and perceive light tough

151
Q

Where is thick skin found?

A

palms, finger tips, and soles of feet (there are no oil/sebaceous glands here or hair)

note: thin skin contains oil glands and hair and is found everywhere else

152
Q

What connective tissues are found in the dermis?

A

proper loose areolar CT and proper dense irregular CT

153
Q

Is the dermis vascular or avascular?

A

vascular

154
Q

What are the 2 layers of the dermis?

test q

A

1) papillary (superficial layer, thin layer and is proper loose areolar CT)
2) reticular layer (deep layer, thick layer, and is proper dense irregular CT)

155
Q

Which dermal layer is proper loose areolar CT?

A

papillary layer

156
Q

What is the superficial layer of the dermis?

A

papillary layer

157
Q

What is the thin layer of the dermis?

A

papillary layer

158
Q

What is the deep layer of the dermis?

A

reticular layer

159
Q

What is the thick layer of the dermis?

A

reticular layer

160
Q

Which dermal layer is proper dense irregular CT?

A

reticular layer

161
Q

The papillary layer of the dermis is only _____ of total thickness of the dermis

A

1/5

162
Q

The papillary layer of the dermis is composed of dermal papillae (papillary dermis projects into the undersurface of the epidermis). What do the dermal papillae produce?

A

fingerprints!

163
Q

What are the contents of the dermal papillae?

test q

A

1) blood vessels (all dermal papillae contain capillary loops)
2) sensory receptors (free nerve endings detect pain and temperature, meissner tactile corpuscles/merkel cells detect light touch)

164
Q

What are the 2 sensory receptors of the dermal papillae?

test q

A

1) free nerve endings (detect pain and temperature)
2) meissner tactile corpuscles (detect light touch)

165
Q

What do the free nerve endings of the dermal papillae detect?

exam q

A

pain and temperature

166
Q

What do the meissner tactile corpuscles/Merkel cells of the dermal papillae detect?

exam q

A

light touch

167
Q

What are the contents of the reticular layer of the dermis?

exam q

A

1) blood vessels (arteries and veins)
2) glands (sweat/sudoriferous and oil/sebaceous)
3) sensory receptors (kraus detects deep touch and pressure, ruffini is in charge of stretch, and pacinian is in charge of pressure)

168
Q

What are the glands of the reticular layer of the dermis?

exam q

A

sweat/sudoriferous and oil/sebaceous glands

169
Q

What are the 3 sensory receptors of the reticular layer?

exam q

A

1) kraus (deep touch and pressure)
2) ruffini (stretch)
3) pacinian (pressure)

170
Q

What is the function of kraus sensory receptors in the reticular layer?

exam q

A

deep touch and pressure

171
Q

What is the function of ruffini sensory receptors in the reticular layer?

exam q

A

stretch

172
Q

What is the function of pacinian sensory receptors in the reticular layer?

exam q

A

pressure

173
Q

What are the 3 accessory organs of the integumentary system?

A

1) cutaneous glands
2) hairs
3) nails

174
Q

Sebaceous glands are a type of cutaneous gland. The specific name for sebaceous glands are ___________ glands. Mature cells are destroyed with the secretion of contents

A

holocrine

175
Q

There are 2 types of sudoriferous (sweat glands, type of cutaneous glands). What are they?

A

1) apocrine (apex comes off and is found in axillary and anogenital region with a whitish appearance/odor)
2) merocrine (no cell damage, true sweat)

176
Q

Ear wax or breast milk is an example of what type of secretion?

A

apocrine (sudoriferous/sweat, a type of cutaneous gland)

177
Q

What is another name for hair?

A

pili

178
Q

What is the structure of hair?

A

columns of dead keratinized epithelial cells bonded together with extracellular proteins (usually collagen in the ECM)

179
Q

What are the 2 regions of hair?

test q

A

1) shaft (the part in the epidermis and projects above the skin surface)
2) root (deep to the shaft, found in the dermis and hypodermis/subcutaneous layer)

180
Q

The shaft and root of hair are comprised of 3 concentric layers of cells. What are they/what are they called?

A

1) medulla (innermost, pigments)
2) cortex (middle, major portion)
3) cuticle (outermost portion, single layer of cells arranged of shingles w/ free edge pointed toward end)

181
Q

The root of a hair is contained within a follicle or….

A

epithelial root sheath

182
Q

What are the 2 parts of the hair follicle/epithelial root sheath?

A

1) internal root sheath (epithelial cells between external sheath and root)
2) external root sheath (invagination/extension of the dermis)

183
Q

What is the dermal root sheath?

A

invagination/extension of the dermis surrounding the follicle (external root sheath)

184
Q

What are the 2 parts of the hair bulb?

test q

A

1) papilla (nipple shaped indentation for nutrition, contains blood vessels and areolar tissue)
2) matrix (single layer of germinal cells covering papilla and is a continuation of stratum basale (site of cell division) of the external root sheath for hair growth)

185
Q

What CT type is found at the papilla of the hair bulb?

A

areolar CT

186
Q

Arrector pili muscles are a bundle of _________ muscle cells that extend from the papillary layer of the dermis to the dermal root sheath of the bulb. What neurons innervate here?

test q

A

smooth

innervated by sympathetic neurons (ANS)

187
Q

Under emotional (fright) or physiological (cold) stress, arrector pili muscles contract and the hair shaft becomes perpendicular to the skin surface and the skin below the shaft forms a slight elevation, called….

A

goosebumps

188
Q

What is the hair root plexus?

A

dendrites of neurons which surround the dermal root sheath of each bulb

189
Q

What are nails?

A

plates of tightly packed, hard, dead, keratinized epidermal cells that form clear protective covering on the dorsal surface of the distal part of fingers and toes

190
Q

What are the 2 main parts of nail structure?

A

1) root (portion of nail buried in proximal skin fold)
2) nail body or plate (visible attached portion)

191
Q

What are the 2 parts of the nail body?

A

1) lunula (“little moon”, whitish crescent shaped area of proximal portion of nail body)
2) free edge (part of nail body that extends beyond the distal end of digit)

192
Q

What part of the nail is this?

Skin covering the matrix and unexposed portion of lunula or proximal nail plate

A

mantle

193
Q

What part of the nail is this?

stratum corneum is thickened at the base of the nail

A

eponychium (cuticle)

194
Q

What part of the nail is this?

stratum basale layer of epidermis where nail starts to grow (produce cells)

A

matrix (root)

195
Q

What part of the nail is this?

pinkish-colored epidermis underneath nail plate

A

nail bed

196
Q

What part of the nail is this?

stratum corneum of epidermis thickened under the free edge of the nail

A

hyponychium

human anatomy & physiology (4 decks)

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