Functions of congress: Representation

Question 1

What are the two different ways the term ‘representation’ can be used?

Answer 1

either how legislators represent their constituents, or who the legislators are and whether they are representative of constituents in terms of social characteristics like gender and race

Question 2

Why can we conclude that congress fails to represent the nation as a whole in terms of social characteristics?

Answer 2

Congress is still significant older, whiter, more male dominated, more professional and more Christian than the nation as a whole

Question 3

What did Clinton say in support of the idea that congress should be more diverse?

Answer 3

Clinton said that his administration should ‘look like America’ if the democratic values of fairness and representative democracy were to be upheld

Question 4

Why can we say that congress is moving in the right direction in terms of diversity?

Answer 4

The 116th congress was the fifth congress in a row where the chambers became more diverse in terms of gender and race

Question 5

Give some statistics highlighting how congress fails to be representative

Answer 5

Women make up 51% of the population but 24% of congress

Blacks make up 12% of the population but 10% of congress

Hispanics make up 17% of the population but 9% of congress

32% of the US have a bachelor’s degree but 97% of congresspeople do

70% of the population is Christian but 91% of congress people are

LGBTQ make up 5% of the population but 2% of congress

The average age of citizens is 37 while the average age of congresspeople is 59

Question 6

What is the term ‘representation’ mainly used to describe?

Answer 6

The term representation is mainly used to describe how legislators represent their constituents

Question 7

What are the two contrasting models of representation?

Answer 7

delegate and trustee

Question 8

Describe the trustee model

Answer 8

The trustee model was advocated by Edmund Burke and James Madison. Here the representative is formally given the task of making decisions on behalf of their constituents. This representation is said to be based on ‘mature judgement’.

This tends to fit well with how most congresspeople see their role

Supporters say that this model is what the Founding Fathers wanted and was a way of dampening the passions of the day in the decision-making process.

Critics argue that the model is overly elitist

An example of the trustee model in action is when Trump’s attempts to repeal Obamacare were thwarted by Republican Senators, John McCain, Lisa Murkowski and Susan Collins

Question 9

Explain the delegate model of representation

Answer 9

A delegate is someone who is chosen to act on behalf of others. This means they are not a free agent and can exercise little to no private judgement

Legislators who follow this model will base their decisions solely on the wishes of constituents

The model is linked the principle of popular sovereignty, which is where the people are sovereign

Referendums fit well with this model, for here people decide and the representatives merely follow the instructions

Some critics say that representatives only follow the delegate model because they fear repurcussions from their constituents if they don’t. Whenever a congressperson votes, they are sensitive to how it will be received by their constituents. This is the reason that many Republican congresspeople refused to vote to impeach Trump, due to his popularity among Republican voters

Question 10

Assess congress’s effectiveness in representation

Answer 10

On issues that significantly affect the majority of their constituents, members of congress will be very assiduous in performing their representative function. This especially true for House members, who face elections every two years

On most issues, congresspeople will have constituents on both sides of the argument. Finding out what the majority of constituents think on a certain issue will be a big issue

Question 11

What is an incumbent?

Answer 11

The senator or representative who is elected in the incumbent of their state or district

Question 12

What is the incumbency effect?

Answer 12

In the 10 election cycles 2000-18, re-election rates have been consistently high, with incumbency rates slightly higher in the house. Therefore, most members of congress leave by voluntary retirement or death.

Question 13

Give some statistics to prove the idea of the incumbency effect

Answer 13

The lowest re-election rates for the senate in this period was still as high as 79% in the Senate (2006) and 85% in the House (2010), while the highest re-election rates were as high as 96% in the Senate (2004) and 98% in the house (2000)

Question 14

What are the 4 main benefits of being an incumbent?

Answer 14

• Constituency services and name recognition
• Pork barrel politics
• Fundraising
• Gerrymandering

Question 15

What are constituency services?

Answer 15

Incumbents can provide constituency services, like helping constituents receive the correct level of service from a federal government department or agency (this is similar to the redress of grievances in the UK parliament)

Question 16

What will the re-election campaign of an incumbent largely focus on?

Answer 16

The re-election campaign of an incumbent will focus on how they have benefitted their state/district

Question 17

List the structural advantages incumbents have over their challengers

Answer 17

As members of congress, they have their own official website, which they use to demonstrate their successes and influence, and it provides a simple way for their constituents to contact them

Franking privileges allow them to mail their constituents at congress’ expense, and although this cannot be used for overt electoral ends, it can be used to increase name recognition

Incumbents will have a high level of name recognition compared to a challenger plus seniority in congress and perhaps membership in prestigious committees or sub-committees, normally ones that are related to constituency interests, and maybe even the position of committee chair. Replacing the incumbent means losing these years of seniority that have been built up in congress – seniority which may bring significant benefits to constituents through pork barrel politics…

Question 18

What does the term ‘pork barrel politics’ mean?

Answer 18

This term is used to describe funds for superfluous projects in a congressperson’s state or district. These projects are specifically designed to benefit constituents in the hope of gaining votes

Question 19

Why are there contradictory attitudes to pork barrel politics amongst Americans?

Answer 19

Ordinary voters have always had contradictory attitudes towards pork barrel politics, praising their own congresspeople if they are beneficiaries while criticisng other members of congress for wasteful spending when they do it

Question 20

How much was spent on pork barrel politics in 2019?

Answer 20

An estimated $13.5 billion was spent on pork barrel politics in 2019

Question 21

On what spectrum will pork barrel politics projects fall?

Answer 21

Some projects can be quite small in scale, while others can be very expensive and spiral out of control.

Question 22

Give an example of a very expensive pork barrel politics project that spiralled out of control

Answer 22

‘Big Dig Highway’ project in Boston (1991-2007) – This project to move 3.5 miles of highway underground was supposed to cost $3 billion. The entire process came to $14.6 billion and overran by a decade. This is seen as the ultimate folly by critics of pork barrel politics, although the Boston residents that benefitted from the huge investment would beg to differ

Question 23

Give an example of small scale pork barrel politics project

Answer 23

Arts programme in Washington DC (2018) - This was an example of a small scale project. The sum of $2.8 million was allocated for the National Capital Arts and Cultural Affairs grant programme, which funda art and cultural institutions in Washingon DC

Question 24

Explain the fundraising advantage incumbents enjoy over their challengers

Answer 24

Most incumbents have a huge advantage over challengers in terms of funding

Incumbent senators raised 7 times as much as their challenges in 2018 while House members outraised their challengers 8 fold

Vicious circle for challengers. Incumbents are far more likely to be re-elected, so they find it easier to raise money. Money is crucial in congressional elections. The money is spent on buying TV advertising time, hiring political consultants, hiring halls for campaign rallies and printing yard signs, badges and bumper stickers

Question 25

What is gerrymandering?

Answer 25

This is the deliberate shaping of congressional districts to give one party an advantage

Question 26

What does gerrymandering help us explain?

Answer 26

This helps to explain why so many incumbents are re-elected

Question 27

Explain how gerrymandering works

Answer 27

Each state draws up its congressional districts, with the state legislature able to de-draw the boundaries every decade. This has led to the governing party of each of the state legislatures drawing district boundaries to give themselves an electoral advantage

It is possible to create very different electoral outcomes just by tampering with the district boundaries

Question 28

Give an example of gerrymandering causing voter suppression

Answer 28

North Carolina is an example of gerrymandering causing voter suppression. In 2020, a majority of voters there supported the D candidates but the majority of seats were won by Rs

Question 29

What did Professor David McKay argue gerrymandering led to in 2018?

Answer 29

In 2018, Professor David McKay argued that districts that come about as a result of gerrymandering are often bizarrely shaped

Question 30

List the factors influencing voting behaviour in congress

Answer 30

Political parties

Congressional caucuses

The administration

The constituency

Pressure groups

Lobbyists

Question 31

What will the importance of each of these factors depend upon?

Answer 31

The importance of each factor will vary depending on the member of congress in question

Voting decisions are influenced by the delegate and trustee models

Question 32

Why can political parties be seen as the most important influence on congressional voting behaviour?

Answer 32

Due to the fact that we are in an era of party polarisation

Question 33

What is a ‘party vote’?

Answer 33

A ‘party vote’ refers to a vote where the majority of one party goes against the majority of the other party. The occurs in congress when the issue at hand is contentious and ideological; things like civil liberties, tax, gun control, abortion or school prayers

Question 34

Give an example of a party vote

Answer 34

The Federal Information Systems Safeguard Act (2016) is an example of a party vote. All except two Rs voted in favour and all but 4 Ds voted against

Question 35

Why is party voting not as prevelent as it is in the UK?

Answer 35

The parties have few carrots and sticks to encourage party voting. Threats of de-selection do not work in a system where voters decide on candidtes in primary elections. Carrots like spots in the executive do not work given the separation of powers

Question 36

Counter the idea that political parties are the most important factor on congressional voting behaviour

Answer 36

Although party affiliation is an important factor, party labels do not necessarily mean voting together. Conservative Ds, like Congressmen Jim Cooper of Tennessee, often voted with Rs, and liberal Rs, such as Senator Susan Collins of Maine, often vote with the Ds. Likewise, if the party’s position on an issue contradicts the popular consensus of the congressperson’s district or state, they will often vote against their party. However, these people tend to be the exception to the rule as parties become increasingly polarised

Question 37

What is a caucus?

Answer 37

These are collections of members of either major party. They look to advance a special interest and pursue common legislative objectives

Question 38

Give an example of a congressional caucus

Answer 38

An example of a caucus is the Congressional Hispanic Caucus, a bipartisan group that focuses on policies to help and benefit the Hispanic and Latino communities

Question 39

Why are there only 4 congressional caucuses strictly speaking and what do they do?

Answer 39

Strictly speaking, there are just four caucuses, the House R Caucus and the House D Caucus in both the House and the Senate. The Ds refer to their groups as the Democratic Caucus while the Rs refer to theirs as the Republican Conference. These groups elect the majority and minority leaders and the whips in each house. They perform organisational functions and meet to discuss legislative strategy.

Question 40

Why are there now many more than just 4 caucuses?

Answer 40

Over time, and especially in the House due to its larger membership, other groups or caucuses – officially called congressional membership organisations – have grown to represent smaller, more cohesive groups within each chamber, often based on ideological, regional, ethnic or economic interests. These caucuses are a growing rival to party leadership and are increasingly a factor in congressional voting

Question 41

Give some examples of single issue caucuses

Answer 41

A number of caucuses are single issue, like the Pro-Choice and LGBBTQ+ Equality caucuses

Question 42

Give some examples of some more niche caucuses

Answer 42

the AI Caucus and the Congressional National Park Caucus

Question 43

What are three main functions of congressional caucuses?

Answer 43

Education, agenda setting and encouraging support

Question 44

Explain the function of education

Answer 44

They educate members on proposed legislation and may offer policy briefings

Question 45

Explain the function of agenda setting

Answer 45

Members may work together to boost the chances of something getting on the congressional legislative agenda. They might do this through co-sponsoring legislation, circulating ‘Dear Colleague’ letters to drum up support, meeting with party leadership to press their cause, or lobbying relevant committee members

Question 46

Explain the function of encouraging support

Answer 46

Encouraging people to vote in favour on the floor chamber

Question 47

What is the Blue Dog Coalition?

Answer 47

A group of mainly southern House Ds who are fiscally conservative. Formed in 1995 in the wake of significant R gains. Gave a voice to conservative, moderate, centrist Ds. Influential in passing 1995-6 welfare reform. Currently 18 members

Question 48

What is the Congressional Black Caucus?

Answer 48

Formed in 1971 for exclusively black American members of both houses. Originally 13 members. Currently has 60 members – all but two are House Ds. Although it claims to be bipartisan, only 5 Rs have ever joined

Question 49

What is the Congressional Hispanic Caucus?

Answer 49

Formed in 1976 to support policies that benefit the Hispanic community. 3 senators and 32 House members currently. Began as a bipartisan group, but R members left in the late 1990s to form their own caucus, the Congressional Hispanic Conference, which currently has 6 members, all in the house

Question 50

What is the House Freedom Caucus?

Answer 50

Found in 2015. Considered to be the most right wing of all the caucuses. 45 members in the House, all R. Most members also belong to the R study committee, a much larger conservative R caucus in the house with over 147 members. Supports ‘limited government, the constitution, the rule of law and policies that promote the liberty, safety and prosperity of all Americans

Question 51

What is The Tuesday Group?

Answer 51

Informal caucus of around 25 moderate House Rs. Founded in 1995 following the R takeover of the House to counter balance a large number of conservative Rs who were newly elected in the 1994 midterms. Closely allied with another caucus – the Republican Mainstream Partnership – made up of 70 moderate Rs from both chambers. In 2007, the Tuesday Group set up its own political action committee (PAC) to help members improve their chances of re-election

Question 52

Give an example of how not all caucuses are set up along party lines

Answer 52

Not all caucuses are set along party lines. For instance, the Congressional Steel Caucus has over 100 members, both Rs and Ds, who mainly represent districts and states with an interest in steel manufacturing

Question 53

What does the term ‘administration’ refer to?

Answer 53

The term ‘administration’ refers to members of the executive branch, and crucially the president

Question 54

Who initiates alot of congressional legislation?

Answer 54

The administration

Question 55

Why do cabinet members have a keen interest in the passage of legislation?

Answer 55

Cabinet members, the heads of the 15 executive departments, have a keen interest in the passage of legislation affecting their policy areas

Question 56

What do members of the administration do try and influence legislators?

Answer 56

Members of the administration keep in contact with members of congress through phone calls and meetings in an attempt to convince them to vote favourably. They talk with members of relevant committees and staff members on Capitol Hill

Question 57

How will the WH try and influence legislation?

Answer 57

The WH often gets involved through the Office of Legislative Affairs as well as directly through the president. The House Speaker and Senate Majority Leader will play a key role in liaising with the WH, the various caucuses and individual members of congress. For instance, in 2010, Nancy Pelosi was crucial in ensuring that enough concessions were made to gain sufficient votes from the Blue Dog Coalition to pass Obamacare

Question 58

What three things does persuasion from the executive need to be and why?

Answer 58

Regular because it is important that a member of congress is not just approached right before a vote

Reciprocal because it is important the WH members are willing to do favours in return

Bipartisan because all this needs to be done with members of both parties. For an administration to talk only with members of his own party is usually a recipe for disaster. Success tends to occur in congress when there is a bipartisan coalition

Question 59

List the reasons why representatives place a high premium on representing the views of their constituents

Answer 59

The constitution states that they must be residents of the state they represent, so that this gives them a good understanding of what those they represent think and want

A number of states go further by insisting that, through the ‘locality rule’, that House members reside in the district they represent

Typical House and Senate members do not just reside in the state or district they represent; they will also have been, born, educated, raised and would have worked there

House members are especially careful about the views of their constituents because of the two-year re-election cycle they face

An incumbent may have to win a primary to see whether they can represent their party within their area, meaning they have to make sure that they represent those constituents specifically part of their party. For instance, D Joseph Crowley represented NY’s 14th district from 1999-2019 before being beaten in a primary by AOC, who went on to retain the seat for the Ds

Question 60

List the methods that representatives can use to make sure they remain in touch with the views of their constituents

Answer 60

There are various methods members of congress can use to find out about their constituents views. While they are in Washington, they can keep in touch by phone and email offices back in their state or district. They can read newspapers to keep informed about constituency events. They receive letters, visits, emails, phone calls and letters from constituents. They discover what constituents want by taking regular visits home

Question 61

List the variety of engagements senate and house members have at home

Answer 61

Holding party and town hall meetings

Conducting surgeries with individual constituents

Make visits around the state/district

Appearing on local radio phone in programmes

Interviews with representatives of the local media

Addressing groups such as chambers of commerce, professional groups and charity lunches

Visiting schools, hospitals and businesses

Question 62

Explain how representatives have begun making better use of online tools

Answer 62

Members of congress make frequent use of online communication tools to keep in touch with members of constituents, such as televised town hall meetings, video conferences, posting their activities on YouTube and blogging. Members are also taking to Facebook, Twitter and TikTok to show their more personal side to constituents

Question 63

Why is difficult for representatives to get an idea of how their constituents want them to vote?

Answer 63

Because their constituents will be divided on most issues

Question 64

Why are representatives more likely to hear negative opinions about legislation?

Answer 64

Through town hall meetings and constituency mail, negative opinions are much more likely to be expressed than positive opinions. One D congressmen described constituency mail as ‘what folks don’t like from the folks who don’t like it’. It is usually not representative of constituency opinion

Question 65

Why should representatives not simply act as a delegate?

Answer 65

Members of congress are meant to be more than just delegates and may need to factor in other things, mainly the national interest, more than just what is locally popular or politically expedient, therefore fulfilling the role of a trustee. In practise, members of congress often switch between the delegate and trustee models

Question 66

Give a recent example of constituency opinion being so powerful that it caused representatives to defy their party leadership

Answer 66

A recent example of this would be the 12 R representatives who voted against the 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act. All were predominantly representatives of California, New Jersey and NY districts whose constituents would have actually seen their taxes increase because of a cap on state and local tax deductions

Question 67

List the different methods interest groups use to influence voting behaviour

Answer 67

They make direct contact with members and their staff

They attempt to generate public support for their position

They make visits and phone calls

Provide evidence to committees

Organise rallies, demonstrations and petition drives

Engage in fundraising and campaigning

Question 68

What do interest groups use the money they raise to do?

Answer 68

Money raised is used to fund politicians who support their cause and attack those that oppose it

Question 69

Give some examples of issues that have been big for interest groups in recent years

Answer 69

the retired, healthcare, abortion, guns, big business and the environment

Question 70

How much did big business donate to candidates in the 2020 election cycle?

Answer 70

In the 2020 election cycle big business donated just over $75 million to candidates

Question 71

How do interest groups have influence over how representatives vote?

Answer 71

When representatives vote, they will be mindful of what the interest groups who have donated to them will want

Question 72

What are lobbyists employed to do?

Answer 72

Employed by interest groups to try and influence

Question 73

What is the most effective way of lobbying and why?

Answer 73

The most effective way of lobbying is the provision of accurate, detailed and up-to-date information to those who need it. Legislators and bureaucrats are busy people with limited time and resources on their hands. Legislators in particular must seem knowledgeable about and take a stand on lots and lots of policies issues. Interest groups are often their only source of info and they may even draft examples of what possible legislation could look like

Question 74

Why can lobbyists and the info they provide not always be trusted?

Answer 74

It should be noted that lobbyists will sometimes produce events specifically to promote their own cause, although legislators are usually savvy enough to know when interest groups are trying to present a distorted picture

Question 75

What will effective lobbyists be able to do?

Answer 75

The more effective the legislator, the better they are at getting congresspeople to adopt their position

Question 76

What will interests groups do to facilitate lobbying?

Answer 76

In order to facilitate lobbying, pressure groups maintain offices in Washington and various state capitals

Question 77

What do critics say about lobbying?

Answer 77

Critics argue that lobbyists have more influence over legislators than their constituents