General Neuroanatomy 1: Introduction to the nervous system Flashcards

1
Q

What is in charge of maintaining homeostasis in the body?

A

Nervous and endocrine systems

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2
Q

What is the nervous system responsible for?

A

Behaviors
Memories
Movements

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3
Q

What are the three basic functions of the nervous system?

A

1) Sensing changes with sensory receptors
2) Interpreting and remembering those changes
3) Reacting to those changes with effectors
-Muscular contractions
-Glandular secretions

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4
Q

The nervous system is divided into two subdivisions:

A

central nervous system (CNS) & peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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5
Q

What does the CNS consist of?

A

Brain & spinal cord

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6
Q

What does the PNS consist of?

A

Spinal nerves, cranial nerves, associated ganglia & nerve plexuses

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7
Q

The peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into:

A

afferent (sensory) & efferent (motor)

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8
Q

Afferent or sensory division transmits impulses from _________ to the _____.

A

Peripheral organs; CNS

Includes:
- sensory impulses
- special sensory impulses
- visceral sensory impulses

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9
Q

The efferent (motor) division of the PNS is again divided into what?

A

somatic and autonomic

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10
Q

Somatic nervous system:

A

supplies motor impulses to the skeletal muscles

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11
Q

The autonomic nervous system (ANS):

A

Visceral motor (ANS):
supplies motor impulses to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands

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12
Q

ANS; Visceral motor is further subdivided into:

A

Sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous system

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13
Q

____________________ is one of the main subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system and governs the function of the GI tract.

A

Enteric nervous system

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14
Q

The brain consists of:

A

-Cerebrum
-Diencephalon
-Cerebellum
-Brainstem

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15
Q

The brain stem consists of:

A

-Midbrain
-Pons
-Medulla oblongata

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16
Q

The CNS process _____________ and ______________ messages.

A

Incoming sensory; Outgoing motor

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17
Q

CNS is involved in higher-level mental activities such as:

A

-Learning
-Memory
-Reasoning

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18
Q

CNS is organized as _____ and _______ matter.

A

Grey and white

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19
Q

Gray matter comprises of:

A

-nerve cell bodies
-bundles of myelinated nerve fibers
-non-neuronal supportive cells
-glial cells
-neuroglia

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20
Q

White matter consists of:

A

-Myelinated nerve fibers (tracts or fasciculi)

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21
Q

In the spinal cord, the gray matter forms an _______________ inner core surrounded by white matter.

A

H-shaped

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22
Q

In the brain, there is a thin outer shell of ___________, the ______, covers the core of the _____________.

A

grey matter; cortex; white matter

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23
Q

A cluster of nerve cells bodies embedded within the CNS is called:

A

Nucleus

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24
Q

The aggregation of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS is called:

A

Ganglion

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25
Q

The PNS includes:

A

-Spinal nerves
-Cranial nerves
-Ganglia
-Nerve plexuses

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26
Q

What are the major divisions of the CNS?

A

-Cerebral cortex
-Diencephalon
-Cerebellum
-Brainstem (continues inferiorly as the spinal cord)

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27
Q

General terminology:
Rostral - Caudal
Dorsal - Ventral
Horizontal, coronal, and sagittal

A
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28
Q

Identify the structures:

A

1) Cerebral hemisphere
2) Diencephalon
3) Cerebellum
4) Brainstem
5) Midbrain
6) Pons
7) Medulla oblongata
8) spinal cord

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29
Q

Two cells of nervous tissue:
Neuroglia=>
Neurons=>

A

Neuroglia:
-Support cells of the nervous system
-Nourish and clean up after neurons

Neurons:
-Functional unit of nervous system
-How signals travel to and from PNS to CNS and within CNS

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30
Q

What happens in grey matter & white matter in the CNS:

A

Grey matter:
-Where synapsing occurs between cells
-Information processing/ passing of signals

White matter:
-Where signals travel from one location to another within the CNS

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31
Q

Where can we find grey matter?

A

-Cerebral cortex
-Cortical nuclei/diencephalon
-Grey horns of spinal cord

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32
Q

Where can we find white matter?

A

-Cerebral tracts (corpus callosum)
- White columns of spinal cord
-Spinal pathways
-Peripheral nerves

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33
Q

What does the cerebrum consist of?

A

-outer cerebral cortex
-Internal region of cerebral white matter
-Nuclei deep within the white matter

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34
Q

Cerebrum comprises of a ______ and __________________ within the anterior and middle cranial fossae.

A

left and right cerebral hemisphere

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35
Q

In a superior view the ______________ separates the two hemispheres

A

longitudinal fissure

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36
Q

The cerebral hemisphere can be divided into four main lobes:

A

-Frontal
-Parietal
-Occipital
-Temporal
-Insula ( hidden portion deep to the sulcus)

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37
Q

Function of the frontal lobe:

A

-Initiate motor impulses
-Cognition
-Control of voluntary movement
-Motor production of speech (expressive language)

Special senses: smell

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38
Q

Function of the parietal lobe:

A

-Receive general sensory information
-Process sensory information

General sensations:
-pain, pressure, temperature, touch, tickle, and vibration

Special senses: taste

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39
Q

Function of the occipital lobe:

A

-Processing visual sensations

Special sensation: vision

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40
Q

Main function of the insula:

A

taste impulses

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41
Q

Function of the temporal lobe:

A

-auditory impulses
-Processes memories

Special sensation: auditory information

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42
Q

The fold of the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres:

A

Gyri
-separated by furrows called: sulci

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43
Q

The three main sulci in each cerebral hemisphere:

A

1) Central sulcus: separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe

2) Lateral sulcus: superior boundary of the temporal lobe and separates it from the frontal and parietal lobes

3) Parieto-occipital sulcus: separates the parietal lobe from the occipital lobe

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44
Q

The cerebral cortex:

A

-Outermost layer of the brain
-Associated with higher level processing and functioning
-Divided into right and left hemispheres
-Folded to increase the surface area for information processing:
Gyri: bumps/folds of cortex
Sulci: grooves/indentations
Fissure: Deep sulcus (longitudinal fissure
divides hemisphere (shown in picture))

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45
Q

Central sulcus:

A

Prominent landmark separating the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe

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46
Q

Identify the structures:

A

1) Longitudinal fissure
2) Central sulcus
3) Gyrus
4) Sulcus
5) cerebral cortex
6) Cerebral white matter
7) Fissure

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47
Q

Identify the structures:

A

1) Frontal Lobe
2) Precentral gyrus
3) central gyrus
4) Postcentral gyrus
5) Parietal lobe
6) Occipital lobe
7) Temporal lobe
8) Cerebellum
9) Medulla oblongata
10) Pons
11) Lateral sulcus

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48
Q

Grey matter forms the __________

A

cerebral cortex

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49
Q

Clusters of nuclei within the white matter are collectively known as ______________

A

basal ganglia (nuclei)

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50
Q

What are the main components of the basal ganglia?

A

-Caudate
-lenticular (putamen and globus pallidus) nuclei
(involved in the coordination of motor function)

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51
Q

The ______________ is located deep in the cortex and is formed by myelinated nerve bundles.

A

white matter:

These myelinated nerve bundles can be classified into three groups based on the CNS’s connective parts.

52
Q

What are the three classified myelinated nerve bundle groups within the white matter and their function?

A

1) Association: Fibers join the different parts of the same cerebral hemisphere

2) Commissural: Fibers connect different gyri of one hemisphere to the corresponding gyri of the other hemisphere.
-Corpus callosum is the most extensive commissural fiber bundle located at the bottom of the longitudinal fissure.

3) Projection: fibers include the ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) fibers connecting the cortex to the lower centers of the CNS.
The internal capsule is a thick band of white matter between the caudate nucleus and putamen (two nuclei of the basal ganglia) anteriorly, thalamus, and globus pallidus (one of the basal ganglia) posteriorly.

53
Q

Identify the structures:

A

1) head of the caudate nucleus
2) Internal capsule
3) Putamen
4) Thalamus
5) Choroid plexus
6) Pineal gland
7) Corpus callosum

54
Q

Identify the structures:

A

1) Association fibers
2) Commissural fibers
3) Projection fibers

55
Q

What is the general idea about primary sensory areas?

A

Only a specific type of stimulus can stimulate the receptor to produce its receptor potential:

From the receptor => A course of peripheral nerves (either cranial or spinal) => A pathway (tract) => Thalamus (crude signals/sensation) => Appropriate cortical area for the perception of the sense.

56
Q

What are the three major areas in the cerebral hemisphere?

A

1) Primary sensory areas
2) Primary motor areas
3) Association areas (Sensory & Motor)

57
Q

Where is the primary somatosensory area located?

A

cortex; postcentral gyrus- over the lateral and medial surface of the cerebral hemisphere within the longitudinal fissure.

“Cortical Mapping”- homunculus- This human-like creature illustrates different parts of the human body having different spacial presentations on the cortex.

58
Q

Where is the primary visual area?

A

cortex; occipital lobe

59
Q

Where is the primary auditory area?

A

cortex; upper portion of temporal lobe

60
Q

Where is the primary gustatory area?

A

cortex; insula (insular lobe)

61
Q

Where is the primary olfactory area?

A

cortex; medial aspect of the temporal lobe

62
Q

Identify the structures:

A

1) Taste
2) Vision
3) Hearing

63
Q

Identify the structures:

A

1) Primary olfactory cortex
2) Primary visual cortex

64
Q

Identify the structures:

A

1) Gyri of Insula

65
Q

Which area or the cortex creates impulses that travel along the corticospinal tract and feed the spinal nerves, or the corticobulbar tract providing stimuli to the nuclei of the cranial nerves?

A

Primary motor area (cortex);
These pathways start from the pyramidal cells of the precentral gyrus in the frontal lobe.

66
Q

Corticospinal tract is also called the_________

A

pyramidal tract: because its origin forms pyramidal cells (precentral gyrus)

67
Q

The largest area of the gyrus generates motor signals for:

A

-Muscles of the hands
-Muscles of facial expressions
-muscles functionally belonging to the vocal apparatus (initiate fine movements)

Injury here: motor paralysis of the contralateral side of the body

68
Q

The precentral gyrus:

A

Extends itself over the medial and lateral cerebral surfaces.

Medial surface: produces motor signals for the leg and foot (area supplied by branches of the anterior cerebral artery, so isolated cerebrovascular accident of this area only causes motor weakness of leg and foot muscles)

Lateral: motor signals for the rest of the body

69
Q

Primary motor area(cortex):

A

-Precentral gyrus:
Involved in conscious control of precise skilled, voluntary movements.

Receives input:
Premotor area & supplementary motor areas
-Sensory cortex
-thalamus
-basal ganglia
-cerebellum

70
Q

Where is the premotor area located?

A

Frontal lobe, in front of precentral gyrus

71
Q

What is the function of the premotor area?

A

Space where patterns of movement are stored
-Learned and several times performed movement is stored as an algorithm into this gyrus.

72
Q

Where is the frontal eye field located?

A

In front of pre-motor area of frontal lobe.

73
Q

What does the frontal eye field control?

A

Voluntary synchronized movement of the eyes:

Left-side; forces both eyes to move right
Right-side; forces both eyes to move left

If one of the two sides is injured: The other side dominates and forces the eyes to “look into the side of injury”

74
Q

Where is broca’s area located?

A

Inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe

Almost always found in the left side of the brain.

75
Q

What is the function of Broca’s area?

A

Generating motor signals for vocal apparatus

Injury here: Broca or motor aphasia; patient understands the speech but cannot speak.

76
Q

Where is Wernicke’s area located?

A

Around the posterior end of the lateral sulcus in the left temporoparietal junction.

77
Q

What function does Wernicke’s area serve?

A

Critical for the understanding of language.

Damage here:
receptive/sensory/Wernicke’s aphasia: empty, fluent speech and a loss of speech comprehension

Speech may be effortless and without hesitancy, but little meaningful information is conveyed

Speaks jumbled meaningless words.

78
Q

What connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas?

A

White matter tract = Arcuate fasciculus

79
Q

What is the lesion of the arcuate fasciculus referred to?

A

conduction aphasia:
-Can comprehend and articulate
-Difficulty repeating heard speech

80
Q

The association areas are _________ to the primary areas and are connected to the primary areas by the _______________.

A

adjacent; association fibers

Enables sharing of different signals by the entire cerebral hemisphere to create comprehensive perception of objects or things that surround us or come in contact with the surface of our bodies.

81
Q

The common integrative area:

A

Located among the sensory, visual, and auditory association areas and integrates signals it receives from primary areas.

Redirects those signals into other parts of the brain where it generally creates thoughts and ideas we understand, and then look for appropriate responses.

82
Q

The functional differences between the two hemispheres:

A

Focus on notes in the red box

83
Q

Where is the diencephalon loctaed?

A

Between the cerebral hemispheres and the midbrain

84
Q

What does the diencephalon include?

A

Thalami and other structures surround the third ventricle, such as the hypothalamus and epithalamus.

Lateral walls form: Epithalamus most superiorly, thalamus centrally, and the subthalamus and hypothalamus inferiorly.

85
Q

The thalamus:

A

Part of the diencephalon:
-Egg-shaped structure consisting of a group of nuclei (mostly sensory)

Plays a crucial role in brain function:
-Processing & distribution center
-Relay & regulating information from outside world and internal milieu => cerebral cortex & sustaining cortico-thalamo-cortical communication

-Consciousness
-sleep
-attention
-memory
-sensory
motor functions

All senses (except smell) to certain sensory areas of the cerebral hemisphere.

86
Q

Hypothalamus:

A

-Inferior & medial to the thalamus
-Center of autonomic nervous system

Controls:
-emotions
-body temp
-eating
-drinking
etc….

Regulates major components of the endocrine system through pituitary gland.

87
Q

Epithalamus:

A

Small region posterior and superior to the thalamus

Pineal gland; regulates circadian rhythm & distribution of pigment melanin of the skin

88
Q

Cerebellum location:

A

Contained within posterior cranial fossa, under tentorium cerebelli, behind medulla and pons, separated by the fourth ventricle.

89
Q

The two cerebellar hemispheres are connected by what?

A

vermis: worm-like structure

90
Q

How is the cerebellum joined to the brainstem?

A

Three bilateral peduncles:

1) Superior cerebellar peduncle: carry axons that connect cerebellum to the red nucleus of the midbrain & thalamus

2) Middle cerebellar peduncle: connect the pontine nuclei of pons to the cerebellum

3) Inferior cerebellar peduncle: carry bundles of axons travelling between the medulla & cerebellum (spinocerebellar tracts)

91
Q

Cerebellar cortex:

A

Grey matter that surrounds the white matter.

92
Q

White matter of the cerebellum contain what?

A

Deep cerebellar nuclei

93
Q

Deep cerebellar nuclei:

A

-Fastigial
-Globose & emboliform (interposed nuclei)
-Dentate

94
Q

Leaf-like ridges on cerebellar cortex:

A

Folia

95
Q

Primary function of the cerebellum:

A

-Coordination of voluntary movements
-Maintaining posture
-Balance

96
Q

Identify the structures:

A

1) Cerebellar nuclei:
a) Fastigial
b) Globose
c) Emboliform
d) Dentate

2) 4th ventricle
3)Superior cerebellar peduncle
4) Vermis

97
Q

The brain stem consists of what?

A

Medulla oblongata
Pons
midbrain

98
Q

Major functions of the brainstem include:

A

1) acts as a passageway for all ascending and descending tracts

2) Contains the nuclei of cranial nerves III to XII

3) It regulates the automatic behaviors required for survival, such as respiration

99
Q

The midbrain is located where?

A

Connects to pons inferiorly & diencephalon superiorly

100
Q

Anterior aspect of the midbrain presents two columns, the cerebral peduncles between which the ________ emerges.

A

CN III: Oculomotor nerve

These columns contain: Descending tracts;
Crus Cerebri:
-Corticospinal
-Corticobulbar tracts

101
Q

The posterior aspect of the midbrain has four elevations known as:

A

Superior & Inferior Colliculi

Nuclei deep in these colliculi relay:
-Visual reflexes
-Auditory reflexes

102
Q

Ascending tracts occupy the white matter of the midbrain behind the _______

A

crus cerebri

103
Q

Several nuclei are embedded within the white matter of the midbrain, some of which include the cranial nerves ___, ____, and ___.

A

CN: III, IV, V
Oculomotor, Trochlear, Trigeminal

The other nuclei include the red nucleus & substantia nigra

104
Q

Red Nucleus:

A

Associated with the rubrospinal tract (part of extrapyramidal pathways)

105
Q

Substantia Nigra:

A

Functionally linked to the basal ganglia regulating voluntary movements.

106
Q

In the transverse section of the midbrain, the internal structures can be divided into three main areas:

A

Tectum: Roof, behind cerebral aqueduct

Tegmentum: From cerebral aqueduct => substantia nigra & cerebral peduncle

Periaqueductal gray matter: Around cerebral aqueduct - site of production of natural painkillers (endorphins & enkephalins)

107
Q

Pons is related to ____________ posteriorly, _____________ inferiorly, and _______________ superiorly.

A

Cerebellum; Medulla oblongata; midbrain

108
Q

The anterior surface of the pons is _________ and carries what?

A

convex

Carries:
-Longitudinal sulcus
-Basilar Sulcus

Occupied by: Basilar artery

109
Q

CN ____, ___, & ____ emerge from _______________.

A

CN: VI, VII, VIII; pontomedullary sulcus

Cranial nerve V appears at the anterolateral surface of the pons.

110
Q

White matter of the pons is formed by:

A

The ascending and descending tracts.

111
Q

Gray matter of the pons is organized as nuclei embedded in the white matter.

Some of these nuclei are related to the CN V, VI, VII, VIII. The other nuclei include _________

A

The pontine nuclei

112
Q

The pontine nuclei:

A

Relay center for motor pathways between cerebrum and cerebellum to coordinate voluntary movements.

113
Q

Two importnat nuclei are found in the pons that add more control to the respiration:

A

pneumotaxic area

apneustic area

114
Q

The medulla takes what shape and is separated from the pons by what?

A

pyramidal; transverse pontomedullary sulcus (superiorly)

continuous with the spinal cord inferiorly

115
Q

Lateral to the pyramid of the medulla is a second elevation:

A

The olive: overlies the inferior olivary nucleus

116
Q

What nerves emerge from the anterolateral surface of the medulla oblongata?

A

CN: IX, X, XI, & XII

117
Q

At the junction of the medulla and spinal cord one can find the ________________.

A

Decussation of pyramids;
corticospinal tracts cross each other here

118
Q

Medulla oblongata is apart of which nervous system?

A

CNS; The arrangement of white and gray matter in the inferior portion of the medulla is the same as the spinal cord.

119
Q

The grey and white matter of the medulla in the superior portion is arranged how?

A

Gray matter is embedded in the white matter as clusters of nuclei.

These nuclei clusters are associated with:
CN V, VIII, IX, X, XI & XII.

120
Q

What are the major nuclei of the medulla oblongata?

A

Inferior olivary nucleus

Nucleus gracilis & Nucleus cuneatus

121
Q

Inferior olivary nucleus:

A

relay center for proprioceptive information to the cerebellum

122
Q

Nucleus gracilis & Nucleus cuneatus:

A

associated with the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway

123
Q

What are the major functional areas of the medulla oblongata?

A

-cardiovascular center
-respiratory center (medullary rhythmic area)
-control vomiting, coughing, sneezing

124
Q

What is the reticular formation and its function?

A

Integral part of the brainstem in three columns:
-Medial
-Lateral
-Median

Functions:
-Control of skeletal muscle, pain modulation
-Control of autonomic and endocrine systems
-Circadian rhythms
-Consciousness

125
Q

How does the reticular formation work?

A

Receives a lot of sensory signals from different parts of the body, including special senses such as vision and hearing.

Prevents overload by acting as a filter:
Filters 99% of sensory signals & prevents the from being consciously perceived.

126
Q

RAS(ARAS) system:

A

Reticular activating system or ascending reticular activating system:

Responds to some stimuli potentially disrupting a relatively consistent flow and unchanged level of intensity of incoming signals.

ex) Falling asleep with the air conditioner running and the constant humming sound of the air conditioner will be filtered out by the reticular formation; when the alarm sounds off the person will wake up

Involved in regulating the circadian rhythm and sleep-wake cycle.

Inputs to spinal cord; reticulospinal pathway: contributes to muscle tone

-General anesthetics work to suppress this system