Doing Psychology Flashcards
What is scientific observation?
Science based on observation of facts (independent of view) - e.g. Falsifiability
Why is scientific observation/objectivity limited?
We can only observe from a physical and mental position/perspective so we cannot see all the facts = Observations are always limited but we assume it is representative
Observation of mental phenomena as mental states are not directly knowable and are based on prior concepts
E.g. To know something is yellow we need to have the concept of yellow
Formal concepts/hypothetical constructs in psychology is the description of mental activity
Why is scientific observation theory-laden? (Based on prior understanding)
What we can see needs to be interpreted and we make assumptions about what has been observed and what hasn’t been
Even these interpretations are shaped by prior understanding so we see something from a particular viewpoint (Perceiving the physical world through the lense of meaning)
What are formal concepts?
Formal concepts - Must be defined based on theoretical assumptions
Measures need to be constructed
Data (observable) must be collected, analysed and interpreted
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What is the issue with introspection as an objective technique?
Practical problem in the early days of Psychology, when experimenters often relied on introspection to access mental experience
William James wrote of the ‘psychologist’s fallacy’, where the psychologist (in the process of introspection) confused his view of the stimulus (which provoked the sensation) with his view of the sensation (the mental state to be described)
It was difficult to separate thoughts from one’s own mental experience from the actual mental experience itself
How did early experiments try to deal with subjectivity?
Subjectivity from participants was dealt with by limiting responses = These responses were still inconsistent so inconsistencies were dealt with via statistics
Subjectivity of the experimenter was controlled by using mechanical devices and standardised procedures
How did Behaviourism deal with subjectivity?
Behaviourism removed subjectivity by using the method of direct observation
These methods are still subjective as someone has to decide what is being observed, how it is going to be done & how it is interpreted etc…
What is operationalism?
Mental phenomena was observed through measurement
Operationalism provided an objective definition of the concept and the concept was defined by the operation (what was measured/what the measurement meant)
If a specific operation (act of measurement) defines a given concept, then a different operation defines a different concept
Two different measurements are of two different things
What is convergence?
Convergence is used to overcome the limits of using specific methods
It uses multiple operations and treats concepts as independent of them
When there is evidence of convergence, then, different measures are regarded as being of the same thing
This remains an interpretation of the evidence, based on an assumption that there is something independent of the measures
What are the problems with social psychology and objectivity?
Psychologists have been restricted in the methods that they used which has been criticised - Social psychologists argued that some experiments included not passive subjects but active participants (Influence of demand characteristics and experimenter effects)
This caused a crisis in social psychology as there were methodological problems with experiments and questioned whether it could be applied to the real world accurately
Gergen, 1973 proposed that social behaviour is not fixed and so qualitative methods began to be used as an alternative which was a less restrictive approach
What is Quantitative research?
Makes predictions/establishes general laws
It establishes causes & correlations about human behaviour & cognitions
Quantitative measurements of cognitions/behaviours produces quantitative data by using a controlled procedure, experiments and correlational studies
Quantitative data undergoes statistical analysis
What is qualitative research?
Involves getting close to the real-life experiences/activities of people
Qualitative data is collected by watching and recording in detail what people are doing and saying & by talking to people about their experiences
Analysis of how people give meaning to their experiences , perform activities (requires different types of qualitative analysis)
What are the strengths of qualitative and quantitative research?
Quantitative research approach = Seen as a scientific approach as often from big samples and can provide statistical analysis
Qualitative research = Psychology is to understand/interpret how people feel and think in real life so it is a more realistic research method
Case studies and exploring individual humans whereas the quantitative approach treats individuals as numbers rather than human
What are the benefits of having different types of research methods?
They can allow us to ask different types of research questions about what we want to know
They can guide us on what method we want to use and provide alternative methods
In order to use research methods as a tool, the difference between the methods & what they contribute needs to be understood
What are the types of qualitative data/analysis?
Researchers can either get involved in the research themselves to collect data or listen to the data back (Participant or non-participant)
Thematic analysis, Conversation analysis, Narrative analysis, Discursive psychology
How do you plan out the qualitative research process?
Topic = Pick a topic and research question
Plan the methods = Plan data collection (e.g. observations etc.), Plan sampling, Plan resources, Plan ethics
Refining plans = Read previous research, test out data collection to see what will work, revise previous planning stage as necessary
Ethics = BPS ethical guidelines set out the profession code: Informed consent, Respect via confidentiality, anonymity & right to withdraw, Avoiding deception, Debriefing, Avoid harm and distress - a duty of care towards the participants. All studies at university undergo ethical review
What is the qualitative research process itself?
Collecting data = Such as interview data
Data preparation = Such as transcribing recordings from the interview to be a written representation of what the data collected
Coding of data = Marking and labelling the data in order to organise, reduce, interpret and analyse the data. Different levels, different stages, different methods of coding depending on what is in the data, the topic & the type of data
Producing an analysis (the final goal) = Interpreting and understanding the meaning of the data
