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psych paper 3 > Gender > Flashcards

Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

Sex

A

MALE/FEMALE
- Biological status of male or female that’s determined by chromosomes, hormones and differences in anatomy

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2
Q

Gender

A

Psychosocial status (roles, attitudes, behaviours) that we associate with being male or female.
- Heavily influenced by social norms and cultural expectations

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3
Q

Transgender

A

Individual identifies a s agender that doesn’t align with their chromosonal sex

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4
Q

Sex Role Stereotypes

A

A belief about what is considered typical behaviour, attitudes and characteristics for a male or female

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5
Q

Male Sex Role Stereotypes

A
  • “Breadwinner”
  • Leadership
  • Independant
  • Assertive
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6
Q

Female Sex Role Stereotypes

A
  • Domestic
  • Caring
  • Gentle
  • Sensitive
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7
Q

Androgyny

A

High level of both masculine and feminine traits/characteristics in the same individual

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8
Q

BSRI’s four categories of gender (1977)

A
  • Masculine (high masc & low fem scores)
  • Feminine (high fem & low masc scores)
  • Androgyny (high masc & fem scores)
  • Undifferentiated (low masc fem scores)
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9
Q

Role of Chromosomes in Males

A

Y chromosome carries a ‘Sex Determining Region Y’ (SRY), that causes the testes to develop in an XY embryo & produces androgens by week 8 of development.
- these androgens cause the embryo to become a male, without them the embryo would develop into a female.

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10
Q

Role of Chromosomes in Females

A

There isn’t a ‘sex-determining region’ as they do not have the Y chromosome. The ovaries are developed and start producing oestrogens (such as progesterone),
- with the female hormones causing the embryo to become a female.

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11
Q

David Reimer

A
  • After a botched circumcision, Bruce Reimer was left without a penis, leaving his parents to look to Money’s theory of gender neutrality for help.
  • Bruce was raised in a stereotypically feminine way, taking on the name Brenda, wearing girl’s clothes and played with girl’s toys like dolls.
  • This experience was psychologically damaging to her, suffering from many emotional problems and, upon finding out about the situation, they went back to living as a male.
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12
Q

Testosterone

A

A steroid that is involved in the development of male secondary sexual characteristics, though it is also seen in females but at 10% the amount in comparison.

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13
Q

Levels of Testosterone during Development

A
  • At week 8 of pregnancy, the testes have developed and begin producing testosterone, with XY foetuses having much higher levels of testosterone than XX foetuses.
  • Between 24 weeks of pregnancy and birth, the testosterone levels have decreased and are low across both sexes.
  • For about the first 6 months, there’s a rush of testosterone with higher levels in males, compared to females.
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14
Q

Effects of testosterone

A
  • Development of male sex organs & physical characteristics
  • Masculinisation of the brain (development of brain areas linked to spatial skills)
  • Association with masculine behaviours (e.g. competitiveness & aggression)
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15
Q

Money & Ehrhardt (1972)

A
  • Studied a sample of girls whose mothers unintentionally took drugs containing testosterone while pregnant.
  • Finding that the girls displayed masculine behaviours, like playing energetic sports, and a lack of feminine behaviours, suggesting testosterone plays a very early role in development as this began in utero and therefore supporting a positive correlation between testosterone & masculine behaviours.
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16
Q

Oestrogen

A

A group of steroid hormones that aid the development of female characteristics and regulate menstruation.
- Can sometimes be seen in males, but they do not produce it biologically and instead gain it from environmental factors.

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17
Q

Effects of oestrogen

A
  • Development of female sex organs & physical characteristics
  • Feminising the brain (promoting neural connections for more ‘distributed’ female brain)
  • Physical & behavioural effects (premenstrual tension/PMT & premenstrual syndrome/PMS)
  • Association with feminine behaviours (e.g. sensitivity & cooperation)
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18
Q

Fitch & Denenberg (1998)

A
  • Studied how the suppressed production of oestrogen by removing the ovaries from female rats 16 days after birth.
  • Findingthat this led to an increased corpus callosum in the adults, and treating the rats with oestrogen resulted in a decreased corpus callosum, supporting the idea that oestrogen is associated with a female-like brain.
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19
Q

Oxytocin

A

A hormone which is also a neurotransmitter produced by both males & females (though females often produce larger amounts), controlling key aspects of the reproductive system).

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20
Q

Effects of oxytocin

A
  • Helps facilitate childbirth through helping stimulating contractions & breastfeeding
  • Affects female social behaviour ( such as: mate selection, monogamy, pair bonding)
  • Nurturing, acceptance, protection of offspring
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21
Q

Van Leengoed et al. (1987)

A
  • Injected rats with an antagonist of oxytocin to inhibit its production after giving birth.
  • This found that the mothers showed a delay in maternal behaviours (e.g. grooming their offspring) & when this wore off, normal maternal behaviour was seen.
  • This supports the link between oxytocin & feminine/maternal behaviours.
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22
Q

Kleinfelter’s Syndrome

A

The presence of an extra X chromosome (so XXY), and occurs due to an error in meiosis.
- These individuals are biologically male (due to having a Y chromosome) with the physical appearance of a male
- affects between 1 in 500 to 1 in 1000.

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23
Q

Psychological effects of Kleinfelter’s Syndrome

A
  • Poor language skills & reading ability (will struggle with education)
  • Passive & shy temperament
  • Lacking ambition
  • Do not respond well to stress
  • Problems with memory & problem solving
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24
Q

Physical effects of Kleinfelter’s Syndrome

A

Reduced body hair
- Possible breast development
- Long “gangly” limbs
- Underdeveloped genitalia & infertility
- Susceptible to health problems that are associated with females (e.g. Breast Cancer)

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25
Q

Turner’s Syndrome

A
  • The lack of an X chromosome (X0), occurring at conception.
  • These individuals are biologically female (due to a lack of Y chromosome) with a female physical appearance
  • affects 1 in 5000 females.
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26
Q

Psychological Effects of Turner’s Syndrome

A
  • Higher than average reading ability than other girls their age
  • Lower than average spatial ability, visual memory, and mathematical skill
  • Socially immune (difficulty in social adjustment & relating to peers)
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27
Q

Physical Effects of Turner’s Syndrome

A
  • Ovaries fail to develop so don’t menstruate & are infertile
  • Don’t develop breasts at puberty, and hips don’t widen
  • Low set ears & webbed necks
  • Small hips compared to their waist
  • Physically immature, resembling pre-pubescent girls
28
Q

Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory

A

Believed that children’s minds develop in stages relating to their age, arguing that a child’s understanding of gender will increase in line with their cognitive abilities & their understanding of the world.
- Developed 3 stages

29
Q

3 Stages of Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory

A
  • Gender Identity
  • Gender Stability
  • Gender Constancy
30
Q

Gender Identity

A

(18ms-3yrs)
- A child can label their own sex correctly & can identify others’ sex
- No understanding that sex is permanent
- Based on physical characteristics

31
Q

Gender Stability

A

(3-5yrs)
- Children understand their own sex is permanent
- Understand that their own appearance doesn’t change their sex
- Don’t have cognitive ability to understand that others’ sex is permanent
- Still fooled by external appearances

32
Q

Gender Constancy

A

(6-7yrs)
- Children have full understanding of everyone’s sex & know that it’s permanent
- No longer fooled by external appearances
- Where they start seeking role models

33
Q

Gender Schema Theory

A
  • Argues that children develop gender when they begin to categorise (make gender schemas) & make sense of the world when it comes to gender-appropriate behaviour
  • Emphasises the importance of children actively seeking gender-related information.
  • Argues that children as early as 2 years old begin to develop gender schemas, actively searching their environment for information as a way of increasing their understanding of the sexes.
34
Q

Gender Schemas

A

Unit of knowledge based on experience consisting of information - such as appropriate behaviours, characteristics, occupations, and roles for both sexes - as a way of helping to process vast amounts of information.

35
Q

Stages of Developing Gender Schemas

A
  • The children start forming gender schemas about toys & activities that they associate with each sex, forming stereotypes of what they should and shouldn’t be doing.
  • A child then actively seeks out further gender information, leading to the development of more complex gender schemas. They can now begin to pay more attention to the activities associated with each sex, developing both ingroup (their own sex) & later outgroup (the other sex) gender schemas, having a greater understanding of their own gender.
  • By age 6, the child will have a sixed stereotypical idea about what is ‘appropriate’ for their gender (mostly based off stereotypes & experiences).
  • Only consistent information is added to the gender schema. Children often disregard, forget, or inaccurately remember any inconsistent information.
  • By age 8, the children have developed strong, elaborate gender schemas for both genders/sexes.
36
Q

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

A

Freud explained gender as taking place in stages that are driven by unconscious forces.
- These stages are the psychosexual stages of development where at each stage the child experiences unconscious conflict that needs to be resolved to ensure healthy psychological development.

37
Q

Phallic Stage

A

Freud believed that gender develops at around 5 years old during the phallic stage.
- In the time before the phallic stage, the children were stated to be ‘bisexual’
- Child’s libido is directed to their genital area, and the child seeks pleasure from playing their own genitals (start developing their gender identity)
- Stated the main force behind gender identity is parental relationships (oedipus/electra)

38
Q

Bisexual

A

Where gender identity doesn’t exist and there’s a lack of differentiation between the behaviour of males and females

39
Q

Oedipus Complex (gender)

A
  • The boy gives up his love for his mother.
  • He begins to identify with his father, internalising the father’s male identity and male gender role, and therefore assuming active masculine characteristics.
40
Q

Electra Complex (gender)

A

The girl identifies with her mother
- Internalises the mother’s female identity and gender role, assuming active feminine characteristics.

41
Q

Reinforcement

A

Reinforcement is when behaviour is strengthened by positive outcomes or the avoidance of negative outcomes.

42
Q

Direct Reinforcement

A

Gender behaviours are more likely to be repeated in the future if followed by either: a positive reward or to avoid a punishment.

43
Q

Differential reinforcement

A

The way boys & girls are encouraged to show gender appropriate behaviour & are discouraged to show gender-inappropriate behaviour
- the way a child learns their gender identity

44
Q

Indirect/Vicarious Reinforcement

A
  • Gender behaviour is learnt through observing the consequences of the actions of other people.
  • If the consequences are seen as positive, the behaviour is more likely to be imitation, and if it’s seen as negative, it is less likely to be imitated.
45
Q

Identification

A

The process where an individual associated the desirable characteristics, qualities, and views of another person as they see this to bring around rewards
- This person then becomes a role model (usually same sex) who is then observed & imitated by the child

46
Q

Factors that can affect the level of identification

A
  • attractiveness, status, gender - those that are attractive, high status, and same sex are usually more identified with as they’re more likely to be modelling gender stereotypical behaviour
47
Q

Modelling

A
  • When a role model performs certain activities, they are modelling that behaviour.
  • When an individual imitates the behaviour of the role model, they are modelling that behaviour
48
Q

Mediational Processes

A
  • Attention
  • Retention
  • Motor Reproduction
  • Motivation
49
Q

Attention

A

Individual must observe the behaviour

50
Q

Retention

A

They must remember the behaviour

51
Q

Motor Reproduction

A

They must be physically capable of carrying out this behaviour

52
Q

Motivation

A

They must want to imitate this behaviour

53
Q

Influence of Culture on Gender

A
  • Different cultures will have different expectations about gender appropriate behaviour, therefore role models may model different gender appropriate behaviour which is more likely to be reinforced.
  • Children are likely to identify with these role models & therefore gender appropriate behaviours which are specific to their culture. This can explain why we may see different gender appropriate behaviours between cultures.
54
Q

Influence of Media on Gender

A
  • Both sexes are generally portrayed in gender-stereotypical ways which emphasises some key differences in how males & females are represented
  • Media provides role models for children who are likely to be same sex & exhibit gender stereotypical behaviour. Children are likely to identify with these role models & therefore imitate gender stereotypical behaviours.
  • Children who are exposed to more media develop stronger & more extreme perceptions of gender roles. The media also gives information to males & females in terms of the likely success of imitating gender-stereotypical behaviours.
55
Q

Gender Dysphoria

A

The discomfort felt by individuals who feel their gender identity doesn’t fit with their sex (and external sex characteristics), feeling as though they should be the other sex
- A majority of gender dysphoria takes place in childhood, and often doesn’t continue after puberty. However, those who still experience it after puberty will have it at a weaker level than in childhood

56
Q

Treatment for Gender Dysphoria

A
  • May assume the sex role of the desired sex, wearing typical clothes & adopting gender-stereotyped, helping them feel better & decrease anxiety and distress.
  • Taking masculinising/feminising hormones can be taken to alter physical features to allow for gender reassignment surgery
57
Q

Biological Explanations of Gender Dysphoria

A
  • Genetics
  • Biochemicals
  • Brain Sex Theory
58
Q

Genetic Explanation of Gender Dysphoria

A
  • Suggests gender dysphoria may be genetic & inherited.
  • Gene-profiling studies have suggested that certain gene variants of the androgen receptor may be involved in this, making the testosterone receptor faulty & not detect testosterone so the brain won’t be masculinised.
59
Q

Biochemical Explanation of Gender Dysphoria

A
  • Gender dysphoria may be influenced by hormonal imbalances during foetal growth & in later childhood development.
  • In ‘typical’ males, large amounts of male hormones are released in the 3rd month of pregnancy, and between 2 & 12 weeks after birth.
  • These hormonal surges must occur at the right time to allow for sufficient masculinisation
  • A disorder in the mother’s endocrine system, maternal stress, or illness may affect the timing/strength of the surges, leading to limited masculinisation, leading to gender dysphoria.
60
Q

Brain Sex Theory Explanation of Gender Dysphoria

A

Suggests that gender dysphoria is caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a person’s biological sex.
- Particular attention is paid towards those areas that are dimorphic (different between sexes), and it maybe these differences are caused by hormone levels in utero or in later childhood development.

61
Q

Social Learning Theory Explanations of Gender Dysphoria

A
  • Learning Theory
  • Social Learning Theory
  • Social Constructionism
62
Q

Learning Theory Explanation of Gender Dysphoria

A
  • Gender dysphoria may be learned through operant conditioning, where individuals are positively reinforced for showing cross-gendered behaviours.
  • Many children experiment with gender role behaviour which could have been reinforced through compliments.
63
Q

Social Learning Theory Explanation of Gender Dysphoria

A

Suggests gender dysphoria may be learned by observation & imitation of role models modelling cross-gender behaviour

64
Q

Social Constructionism Explanation of Gender Dysphoria

A
  • Believes gender identity if a societal concept (invented by society) and it occurs due to society forcing people to be either male or female & act accordingly.
  • This views gender dysphoria as a societal issue rather than a pathological condition/mental disorder.
65
Q

Coolidge et al. (2002)

A
  • Assessed 157 twin pairs for evidence of gender dysphoria.
  • Found the prevalence of gender dysphoria to be 2.3%, with 62% of the cases accounted for by genetic variance & 32% accounted for by environmental influence.
66
Q

Consequence of Coolidge’s study

A
  • Supports the biological explanation as it shows gender dysphoria in a majority of cases was accounted for by genes.
  • High explanatory power as the androgen receptor gene is found in X chromosome, explaining why men are more likely to suffer.
67
Q

Garcia-Falgueras & Swaab (2008)

A
  • Compared post-mortem data from 17 people who had undergone gender reassignment surgery against 25 controls.
  • Found that the hypothalamic uncinate nucleus brain area was similar in MTF ppts to female controls, & was similar in 1 FTM ppt to male controls.
  • They found this area of the brain looked ‘female-like’ in those who are MTF gender dysphorics.

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