Foundation-Focused Deck

Question 1

Four levels of edit (R,SE,C,P) & EXACTLY WHAT EACH LEVEL CONTAINS

1. Revising (SPRC)
2. Substantive Editing (COD)
3. Copyediting (SPHG)
4. Proofreading (GPSW)

Answer 1

The Four Levels of Edit:

Level 1: Revising—Revises the document as a whole, which is why this level of edit is often called “global editing.” Revision pays attention to the document’s subject, purpose, readers, and context of use.

Level 2: Substantive Editing—Pays special attention to the content, organization, and design of the document.

Level 3: Copyediting—Concentrates on revising the style for clarity, persuasion, and consistency, especially at the sentence and paragraph levels. (and headings and graphics)

Level 4: Proofreading—Catches only the grammatical mistakes, (punctuation), spelling and typos, and word usage problems.

Question 2

Five stages of the technical writing process IN ORDER

Stage 1: Researching and Planning
Stage 2: Organizing and Drafting
Stage 3: Improving the Style
Stage 4: Designing
Stage 5: Revising and Editing

Answer 2

Stage 1: Researching and Planning
1. Research your topic
2. Define your purpose
3. Develop a profile of your readers
4. Tap into your creative side
5. Devise your strategic plan

Start-Up Research - internet searches
Formal Research - electronic, print, and empirical sources

Profiles - Needs, Values, Attitudes

Creative side - concept mapping, brainstorming lists, freewriting, storyboarding; what changed recently?

Planning:
1. Identify your objective(s)
2. Create a task list
3. Create a project timeline

Stage 2: Organizing and Drafting
* Choose a genre
* Generate your first draft

Stage 3: Improving the Style
* Plain style - clarity and accuracy
* Persuasive style - motivates by appealing to physical senses, personal values, and emotions
* use sensory details
* use similies and metaphors
* use tone and pace

Stage 4: Designing
* highlight important ideas and facts
* use effective graphics and layout

Stage 5: Revising and Editing
A well-edited, error-free document will help build your readers’ trust in your ideas
1. Level 1: Revising—Subject, purpose, what readers need to know
2. Level 2: Substantive editing—Content, organization, design
3. Level 3: Copyediting—Sentences, paragraphs, graphics
4. Level 4: Proofreading—Grammar, typos, spelling, usage mistakes

Question 3

Four type of readers (PSTG/Ac,Ad,Ev,Su)

SECONDARY/ADVISORS ARE EXPERTS, TERTIARY/EVALUATORS HAVE AN INTEREST

Answer 3

Types of Readers:

1. Primary readers: Action takers: decide/do something
2. Secondary readers: Advisors: experts, influence
3. Tertiary readers: Evaluators: interested outsiders
4. Gatekeepers: Supervisors: sign off before send to primary readers

Question 4

Four contexts of document use (PMEE)

Answer 4

1. Physical context
2. Mobile context
3. Economic context
4. Ethical context

Question 5

Four aspects of a document to adjust for global audiences (COSD)

Answer 5

1. Content
2. Organization
3. Style
4. Design

Question 6

Eight steps for researching in technical workplaces - STEPS IN ORDER

Answer 6

1. Define your research subject.
2. Formulate a research question or hypothesis.
3. Develop a research methodology.
4. Collect evidence through print, electronic, and empirical sources.
5. Triangulate your sources.
6. Take careful notes.
7. Appraise your evidence.
8. Revise, accept, or abandon your hypothesis.

Question 7

Three kinds of evidence for solid research AND EXAMPLES OF EACH

Answer 7

Solid research draws from three kinds of evidence:

Electronic sources: Websites, DVDs, research databases, image databases, television and radio broadcasts, sound recordings, videos, podcasts, blogs

Print sources: Books, journals, magazines, newspapers, government publications, atlases, reference materials, microform/microfiche, press materials, pamphlets

Empirical sources: Experiments, surveys, interviews, field observations, ethnographies, case studies, archives

Question 8

Dangling modifier DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

Answer 8

A dangling modifier is a modifier (usually an introductory phrase) implies a different subject than the one in the sentence’s subject slot. A dangling modifier occurs when a phrase does not properly explain the subject.

Examples:

While eating lunch, the acid boiled over and destroyed Lisa’s testing apparatus.

After driving to Cleveland, our faithful cat was a welcome sight.

Question 9

Copyediting marks / editing symbols - INCLUDING ADD PERIOD

insert
delete
close up space
insert space
transpose
capital letters
lowercase
lowercase, several letters
italics
boldface
delete italics or boldface
normal type (roman)
add period
add comma
add colon
add semicolon
add quotation marks
add apostrophe
begin new paragraph
remove paragraph break
indent text
move text left
block text
spell out (abbreviations or numbers)

Answer 9

See graphic on page 542.

Question 10

Four types of sentences

• Transition sentence
• Topic sentence
• Support sentence
• Point Sentence

Answer 10

Transition sentence - make a smooth bridge from the previous paragraph to the present paragraph

Topic sentence - the claim or statement that the rest of the paragraph is going to prove or support

Support sentence - The bulk of any paragraph is typically made up of support sentences. These sentences contain examples, reasoning, facts, data, anecdotes, definitions, and descriptions.

Point Sentence - restate the paragraph’s main point toward the end of the paragraph

Question 11

Four advantages of documenting your sources

Answer 11

Documenting your sources offers the advantages of:

• supporting your claims by referring to the research of others.
• helping build your credibility with readers by showing them the support for your ideas.
• reinforcing the thoroughness of your research methodology.
• allowing your readers to explore your sources for more information.

Question 12

Six moves in an introduction

Answer 12

Move 1: Define your subject.
Move 2: State your purpose.
Move 3: State your main point.
Move 4: Stress the importance of the subject.
Move 5: Provide background information.
Move 6: Forecast the content.

Question 13

Five moves in a conclusion - INCLUDING RESTATE YOUR MAIN POINT

Answer 13

Move 1: Make an obvious transition.
Move 2: Restate your main point.
Move 3: Reemphasize the importance of the subject.
Move 4: Look to the future.
Move 5: Say thank you and offer contact information.

Question 14

The Given/new method tp write plain paragraphs

Answer 14

Every sentence in a paragraph should contain something the readers already know (the given) and something that the readers do not know (the new).

Question 15

Three links MAX to a website’s most important information

Answer 15

How many levels should a website have? Professional website designers use the following guidelines to determine the number of levels needed in a website:
* A maximum of three links for the most important information
* A maximum of five links for 80 percent of all information
* A maximum of seven links for all information

Question 16

Where do splash pages appear in a website?

Before home page

Answer 16

From Google:

A splash page is an introductory web page that users see before they can continue on to the main content of a website. Splash pages are also known as landing pages or splash screens.

(Technical Communication Today, Sixth Edition [2018] does NOT mention splash or landing pages or screens.)

Question 17

Benefits of an outline

Answer 17

Sometimes it helps to sketch an outline before you start drafting. That way, you can see how the document will be structured.

For all genres, outlining is a good way to start sketching out the shape of your document. Outlining may seem a bit old-fashioned, but it is very helpful when you are trying to sort out your ideas, especially as you prepare to write a complex technical document.

Your outline can be a helpful tool for planning, drafting, and revising your work, whether you sketch your ideas out on paper or with presentation software.

Concept mapping, brainstorming, freewriting, outlining/boxing, and the Five W and How questions are good ways to generate new ideas.

Outlining may seem old-fashioned, but it is a very effective way to sketch out the organization of a document.

Question 18

Body of a Brief Report

Answer 18

1. Summary of completed activities
2. Discussion/results of ongoing activities
3. Forecast of future activities
4. Expenses

Question 19

Body of a Formal Report

Answer 19

IMRaD (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion)

1. Methodology
2. Results
3. Discussion

Question 20

Eight guidelines for plain sentences

Answer 20

Guideline 1: The subject of the sentence should be what the sentence is about.

Guideline 2: The subject should be the “doer” in the sentence.

Guideline 3: The verb should state the action, or what the doer is doing.

Guideline 4: The subject of the sentence should come early in the sentence.

Guideline 5: Eliminate nominalizations.

Guideline 6: Eliminate excessive prepositional phrases.

Guideline 7: Eliminate redundancy in sentences.

Guideline 8: Write sentences that are “breathing length.”

Question 21

Four techniques for writing persuasively INCLUDING CHANGING THE PACE

Answer 21

At a Glance: Persuasive Style Techniques
* Elevate the tone.
* Use similes and analogies.
* Use metaphors.
* Change the pace.

Question 22

Culturally deep = consultants

Answer 22

Culturally deep documents and interfaces use the language, symbols, and conventions of the target culture to reflect readers’ design preferences and expectations. To develop a culturally deep design, you probably need help from designers or consultants who are familiar with the target culture and understand its design expectations.

Culturally shallow documents and interfaces usually follow Western design conventions, but they adjust to reflect some of the design preferences of the cultures in which they will be used. They also avoid any cultural taboos of the people who are likely to use the text. Culturally shallow designs tend to be used in documents or interfaces that need to accommodate a variety of cultures.

Question 23

Reasoning-based persuasion techniques INCLUDING COSTS AND BENEFITS

Answer 23

Persuading with Reasoning

Reasoning has two basic forms:

Reasoning with logic—Using logically constructed statements such as:
* if . . . then
* either . . . or
* cause and effect
* effect . . . because
* costs and benefits
* better and worse

Reasoning with examples and evidence—Using real or realistic statements, such as:
* examples
* prior experiences
* facts
* data
* observations
* quotes from experts

Question 24

Five principles of design AND WHAT IS IN EACH

Balance—The document should look balanced from left to right and top to bottom.

Alignment—Images and words on the page should be aligned to show the document’s structure, or hierarchy.

Grouping—Related images and words should be placed near each other on the page.

Consistency—Design features in the document should be used consistently, so the document looks uniform.

Contrast—Items in the document that are different should look significantly different.

Answer 24

How to apply each principle:

Balance
* On a balanced page or screen, the design features should offset each other to create a feeling of stability. To balance a text, imagine your page or screen is balanced on a point. Each time you add something to the left side, you need to add something to the right side to maintain balance. Similarly, when you add something to the top, you need to add something to the bottom.
* When balancing a page or screen, graphic designers will talk about the “weight” of the items on the page. What they mean is that some items on a page or screen attract readers’ eyes more than others—these features have more weight. A picture, for example, has more weight than printed words because readers’ eyes tend to be drawn toward pictures. Similarly, an animated figure moving on the screen will capture more attention than static items. Here are some basic weighting guidelines for a page or screen:
* Items on the right side of the page weigh more than items on the left.
* Items on the top of the page weigh more than items on the bottom.
* Big items weigh more than small items.
* Pictures weigh more than written text.
* Graphics weigh more than written text.
* Colored items weigh more than black-and-white items.
* Items with borders around them weigh more than items without borders.
* Irregular shapes weigh more than regular shapes.
* Items in motion weigh more than static items.
* A time-tested way to devise a balanced page design is to use a page grid to evenly place the written text and graphics on the page. Grids divide the page vertically into two or more columns.

Alignment
* By aligning items vertically on the page, you can help readers identify different levels of information in a document.
* By aligning items horizontally, you can connect them visually so readers view them as a unit.
* In paper-based documents, look for ways you can use margins, indentation, lists, headings, and graphics to create two or three levels in the text.

Grouping
* The principle of grouping means that items on a page that are near each other will be seen as one unit. Grouping allows you to break up the information on a page by dividing the text into scannable blocks.
* Grouping is also referred to as “using white space” to frame items on the page. White spaces are places where no text or images appear on the page and include:
* the margins of the document.
* the space around a list.
* the area between an image and the body text.
* the space between two paragraphs.
* One way to group information is to use headings.
* In document design, borders and straight lines, called rules, can be used to carve a page into smaller groups of information. They can also help break the text into more manageable sections for the readers.
* Borders completely frame parts of the document.
* Rules are often used to highlight a banner or to carve a document into sections.

Consistency
* The principle of consistency suggests that design features should be used consistently throughout a document or website:
* Headings should be predictable.
* Pages should follow the same grid.
* Lists should use consistent bulleting or numbering schemes.
* Page numbers should appear in the same place on each page.
* A document should not use more than two typefaces.
* Graphics such as tables, charts, pictures, and graphs should be labeled consistently in your document.
* Decide how lists will be used and how they will look.
* If headers and footers appear at the top or bottom of each page, the document will tend to look like it is following a consistent design.

Contrast
* Contrast makes items look distinct and different, adding energy and sharpening boundaries among the features on the page or screen.
* There are a variety of ways to add contrast to a page, including:
* color
* shading
* highlighting
* changes in font sizes.

Question 25

As you draft, look for places where graphics can support the text

Answer 25

As you draft your document, you should look for places where graphics could be used to support the text. Graphics are especially helpful in places where you want to reinforce important ideas or help your readers understand complex concepts or trends.

Question 26

Five format choices in a presentation

INCLUDING LEFT-JUSTIFIED TEXT

Answer 26

Format Choices for presentations:
* Title each slide with an action-oriented heading.
* Put five or fewer items on each slide. If you have more than five points to make about a topic, divide the topic into two slides.
* Use left-justified text in most cases. Centered text should be used infrequently, and right-justified text, almost never.
* Use lists instead of paragraphs or sentences.
* Use icons and graphics to keep your slides fresh for the audience.

Question 27

Font choices for a presentation INCLUDING POINT SIZES

Answer 27

Font Choices in a presentation:
* Use a simple typeface that is readable from a distance. Sans serif fonts are often more readable from a distance than serif fonts.
* Use a minimum of a 36-point font for headings and a minimum of a 24-point font for body text.
* Use color to keep slides interesting and to improve retention.
* Do not use ALL UPPERCASE letters because they are hard to read from a distance.

Question 28

Guidelines for using graphics in a presentation

INCLUDING KEEPING TABLES SMALL AND SIMPLE

Answer 28

Here are some guidelines that pertain specifically to using graphics in a presentation:
* Make sure words or figures in the graphic are** large enough to be read from a distance**.
* Label each graphic with a title.
* Keep graphics uncomplicated and limited to simple points.
* Keep tables small and simple. Large tables full of data do not work well as visuals because the audience will not be able to read them—nor will they want to.
* Use clip art or photos to add life to your slides, but don’t overdo the clip art.

Question 29

Weighting guidelines for a page or screen

INCLUDING RIGHT-SIDE ITEMS WEIGH MORE THAN LEFT,
and
IRREGULAR SHAPES WEIGH MORE THAN REGULAR

Answer 29

Here are some basic weighting guidelines for a page or screen:
* Items on the right side of the page weigh more than items on the left.
* Items on the top of the page weigh more than items on the bottom.
* Big items weigh more than small items.
* Pictures weigh more than written text.
* Graphics weigh more than written text.
* Colored items weigh more than black-and-white items.
* Items with borders around them weigh more than items without borders.
* Irregular shapes weigh more than regular shapes.
* Items in motion weigh more than static items.

Question 30

Four guidelines for using design features consistently

Answer 30

The principle of consistency suggests that design features should be used consistently throughout a document or website:
* Headings should be predictable.
* Pages should follow the same grid.
* Lists should use consistent bulleting or numbering schemes.
* Page numbers should appear in the same place on each page.

Question 31

What each chart is best used for INCLUDING BAR CHARTS

Answer 31

Page 513, Figure 18.6, Choosing the Appropriate Graphic
* Line graph - show a trend; quantities rising and falling over time
* Bar chart - compare two or more quantities; compare different items or the same items over time
* Table - present data and facts for analysis and comparison; display data in an organized, easy to use way
* Pie chart - show how a whole is divided into parts; a pie carved into slices
* Flowchart - show how things, people, or steps are linked together or are connected
* Gantt chart - show how a project will meet its goals over time; project schedule and phases of work

Question 32

Downsides to using a projector during a presentation

Answer 32

The advantages of digital projectors are their ease of use and their ability to create highly attractive, colorful presentations.

The disadvantage is that the projected slides often dominate the room because the lights need to be turned down. As a result, the audience can become fixated on the slides and stop listening to what you are saying. They might also get sleepy in the dark.

Question 33

How to determine the appropriate level of edit for a document

Answer 33

time available and quality needed

Which level of edit is appropriate for your document? The answer to this question depends on two factors: (a) how much time you have and (b) the quality needed in the document. Given enough time, you should ideally go through all four levels, beginning with revising (Level 1) and ending with proofreading (Level 4). In reality, though, the time devoted to revising and editing often depends on how much time is left before the deadline.

Question 34

Four questions used to help design usability tests

Answer 34

Most usability testing is designed to answer four questions:
* Can they find it?
* Can they understand it?
* Can they do it?
* Is it safe?

Question 35

What copyright is, exactly, and what it is not

Answer 35

A copyright gives someone an exclusive legal right to reproduce, publish, or sell his or her literary, musical, or artistic works.

Essentially, a copyright means that a creative work is someone’s property. If others would like to duplicate that work, they need to ask permission and possibly pay the owner. Authors, musicians, and artists often sign over their copyrights to publishers, who pay them royalties for the right to duplicate their work.

Question 36

Guidelines for each of the four levels of editing

1. Revising (SPRC)
   
   • Subject
   • Purpose
   • Readers
   • Context of use
2. Substantive Editing (COD)
   
   • Content
   • Organization
   • Design
3. Copyediting (SPHG)
   
   • Sentences
   • Paragraphs
   • Headings
   • Graphics
4. Proofreading (GPSW)
   
   • Grammar
   • Punctuation
   • Spelling and typos
   • Word usage

Answer 36

The Four Levels of Edit:

Level 1: Revising
* Subject—Is the subject too narrow or too broad?
* Purpose—Does the document achieve its stated purpose?
* Readers—Is the document appropriate for the readers?
* Context of use—Is the document appropriate for its context of use?

Level 2: Substantive Editing
* Content—Are there any digressions or gaps in content?
* Organization—Does the document conform to a recognizable genre or pattern?
* Design—Do the page layout and graphics enhance the readability of the document?

Level 3: Copyediting
* Sentences—Are the sentences clear and concise?
* Paragraphs—Do the paragraphs have a clear topic sentence and support?
* Headings—Do the headings help the readers scan for important information?
* Graphics—Do the graphics support the written text?

Level 4: Proofreading
* Grammar—Are all the sentences grammatically correct?
* Punctuation—Are the sentences properly punctuated?
* Spelling and typos—Are there any spelling errors or typos?
* Word usage—Are all the words used properly?

See pages 533, 536, 538, and 540

Question 37

For effective usability testing, identify objectives for document

find, understand, perform

Answer 37

These objectives could refer to (1) how well the users can find information, (2) how well they understand important ideas, and (3) how well they perform tasks described in the document.

Question 38

Tuckman’s Four Stages of Teaming, in order

INCLUDING WHAT HAPPENS IN EACH

1. Forming
2. Storming
3. Norming
4. Performing

Answer 38

Forming - Strategic Planning
1. Define the project mission and objectives
2. Identify project outcomes
3. Define team member responsibilities
4. Create a project calendar
5. Write out a work plan
6. Agree on how conflicts will be resolved

Storming - Managing Conflict
* Conduct effective meetings
* Choose a meeting facilitator
* Set an agenda
* Start and end meetings promptly
* Address each agenda item separately
* Encourage participation
* Allow dissent
* Reach consensus and move on
* Record decisions
* Recap each agenda item
* Look ahead
* Mediate conflicts

Norming - Determining Team Roles
* Revise objectives and outcomes
* Redefine team roles and redistribute workload
* Go virtual and mobile

Performing - Improving Quality with Total Quality Management (TQM) strategies
* Develop quality feedback loops
* Measure metrics
* Conduct team performance reviews

Question 39

Uses of microblogs

Answer 39

• building a brand
• communicating with the public
• communicating with your team

In technical workplaces, microblogs are especially useful because they allow colleagues, clients, and customers to “follow” you, your team, or your company, receiving updates when things happen. You can also follow others. Managers are increasingly using microblogs to send out workplace announcements, to set up meetings, or to alter schedules.

Both blogs and microblogs can be used for collaborating with your team on a project.

Question 40

Four typical roles in a technical writing team

AND THEIR SEPARATE RESPONSIBILITIES

• Coordinator
• Researchers
• Editor
• Designer

Answer 40

Coordinator—The coordinator is responsible for maintaining the project schedule and running the meetings. The coordinator is not the “boss.” Rather, he or she is a facilitator who helps keep the project on track.

Researchers—One or two people in the group should be assigned to collect information. They are responsible for doing Internet searches, digging up materials in the library, and coordinating the team’s empirical research.

Editor—The editor is responsible for the organization and style of the document. He or she identifies places where content is missing or where information needs to be reorganized to achieve the project’s purpose.

Designer—The designer is responsible for laying out the document, collecting images, and making tables, graphs, and charts.

Question 41

Formulating research questions

Answer 41

Once you have narrowed your subject, you should then formulate a research question and hypothesis. The purpose of a research question is to guide your empirical or analytical research.

Try to devise a research question that is as specific as possible.

As you move forward with your research, you will probably need to refine or modify your original research question and hypothesis. For now, though, ask the question that you would most like to answer. Then, to form your hypothesis, answer this question to the best of your knowledge. Your hypothesis should be your best guess at this time about the answer to your research question. Like most researchers, you will likely need to refine and revise your hypothesis as your research moves forward.

Question 42

Usability = perform

Answer 42

Usability testing means trying out your document on real readers.

Most usability testing is designed to answer four questions:

Can they find it?—Read-and-locate tests are used to determine whether users can locate important parts of the document and how quickly they can do so. Often, the users are videotaped and timed while they are using the document.

Can they understand it?—Understandability tests are used to determine if the users retain important concepts and remember key terms. Users are often asked to summarize parts of the document or to define concepts.

Can they do it?—Performance tests are used to determine whether users can perform the actions the document describes. These tests are often used with instructions and procedures.

Is it safe?—Safety tests are used to study whether the activities described in the document, especially in instructions or user’s manuals, are safe. These tests carefully watch for possible safety problems by having sample readers use the product documentation.

Question 43

Guidelines for working with visuals in a presentation

Answer 43

Use the presentation software (PowerPoint, Keynote, or Presentations) that probably came bundled with your word-processing software

The design principles discussed in Chapter 17 (balance, alignment, grouping, consistency, and contrast) work well when you are designing visual aids for public presentations. In addition to these design principles, here are some special considerations concerning format and font choices that you should keep in mind as you are creating your visuals.

Format Choices
* Title each slide with an action-oriented heading.
* Put five or fewer items on each slide. If you have more than five points to make about a topic, divide the topic into two slides.
* Use left-justified text in most cases. Centered text should be used infrequently, and right-justified text, almost never.
* Use lists instead of paragraphs or sentences.
* Use icons and graphics to keep your slides fresh for the audience.

Font Choices
* Use a simple typeface that is readable from a distance. Sans serif fonts are often more readable from a distance than serif fonts.
* Use a minimum of a 36-point font for headings and a minimum of a 24-point font for body text.
* Use color to keep slides interesting and to improve retention.
* Do not use ALL UPPERCASE letters because they are hard to read from a distance.

Graphics
* Make sure words or figures in the graphic are large enough to be read from a distance.
* Label each graphic with a title.
* Keep graphics uncomplicated and limited to simple points.
* Keep tables small and simple. Large tables full of data do not work well as visuals because the audience will not be able to read them—nor will they want to.
* Use clip art or photos to add life to your slides, but don’t overdo the clip art.

Question 44

Steps for creating reader profiles

Answer 44

Step 1: Identify Your Readers
Step 2: Identify Your Readers’ Needs, Values, and Attitudes
Step 3: Identify the Contexts in Which Readers Will Experience Your Document

Question 45

Contents of reader profiles

Answer 45

Step 1: Identify Your Readers

Primary Readers (Action Takers)
Your primary readers are the people who need to make a decision based on the information you are giving them. You might find it helpful to think of them as action takers because the information you are providing will allow them to do something.

Secondary Readers (Advisors)
Your secondary readers are people who might advise the primary readers. Usually, they are experts in the field, or they have special knowledge that the primary readers require to make a decision. They are not decision makers themselves, but they can greatly influence the decision that will be made.

Tertiary Readers (Evaluators)
The tertiary readers include others who may have an interest in your document’s information. These readers may be local news reporters, lawyers, auditors, historians, politicians, community activists, environmentalists, or perhaps your company’s competitors. You can think of these readers as evaluators because they will be making judgments about your project, usually from an outsiders’ perspective.

Gatekeepers (Supervisors)
Your document’s gatekeepers are people who will need to look over your work before it is sent to the primary readers. Your most common gatekeeper is your immediate supervisor. In some cases, though, your company’s lawyers, accountants, marketing specialists, and others may need to sign off on the document before it is sent out.

Step 2: Identify Your Readers’ Needs, Values, and Attitudes
* Readers’ familiarity with the subject
* Readers’ professional experience
* Readers’ educational level
* Readers’ reading and comprehension level
* Readers’ skill level
* Needs
* Values
* Attitudes

Step 3: Identify the Contexts in Which Readers Will Experience Your Document
* Physical context
* Mobile context
* Economic context
* Ethical context

Question 46

Benefits of reader profiles

Answer 46

• anticipate your readers’ needs and figure out what they value
• find the best way to present information to them
• anticipate the needs and expectations of readers from other cultures
• will give you helpful insight into how they will react to your ideas and how they will use your document
• make good decisions about what they need to know
• figure out how readers’ needs, values, and attitudes will influence how they read your document
• help you better understand how your readers think and how they will respond to your ideas
• make better decisions about the content, organization, style, and design of your document or presentation
• anticipate how places and devices will shape how readers use and understand your message
• anticipate resistance to change and redirect the discussion by appealing to your readers’ core needs and values
• If you show your readers that your ideas are in line with their needs and values, they are more likely to react positively to your message.
• Use reader profiles to make documents more informative and persuasive.
• identify the need-to-know information that your readers want, while steering you away from information they don’t need
• organize your document or presentation to feature the major issues that your readers or audience will find most important
• decide what style and design will best suit your readers’ values and attitudes
• Anticipate the needs of global and transcultural readers.

Question 47

TRICK QUESTION ABOUT QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE

Answer 47

Empirical studies can be quantitative or qualitative, depending on the kinds of evidence you are looking for.

Quantitative research allows you to generate data that you can analyze statistically to find trends.

Qualitative research allows you to observe patterns of behavior that cannot be readily boiled down into numbers.

Question 48

Something about Citations

Answer 48

APA style follows an author-year system for in-text citations, meaning the author and year are usually cited within the text.

Individual authors are cited using their last name and the date of the article. (And sometimes the page.)

If an article has two authors, you should use the ampersand symbol (&) to replace the word and in the in-text citation. The word and should be used in the sentence itself, however.

If the work has fewer than six authors, cite all the names the first time the work is referenced. After that, use the last name of the first author followed by “et al.”

When the author of the document is a corporation or is unknown, the in-text citation uses the name of the corporation or the first prominent word in the title of the document (in quotation marks).

In some cases, several documents will state similar information. If so, you should cite them all and separate the works with semicolons. The sources should be listed in alphabetical order.

APA style discourages putting any forms of personal communication—conversations, e-mails, letters, even interviews—in the References list. So, in-text citations are the only citations for these sources in a document.

When you are using APA style, your references should be listed in alphabetical order at the end of the document. List only the items that you actually cited in your document.

Question 49

What is backward planning?

Answer 49

A reliable time management technique is to use backward planning to determine when you need to accomplish specific tasks and meet smaller and final deadlines.

To do backward planning, start out by putting the project’s deadline on a calendar. Then, work backward from that deadline, writing down the dates when specific project tasks need to be completed