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PSYCH261 > Sleep > Flashcards

Sleep Flashcards

1
Q

Endogenous circannual rhythm

A

generated rhythm that prepares species for seasonal changes
E.g. birds become restless in the spring when it’s time to migrate

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2
Q

Endogenous circadian rhythms

A

Last about a day
Typical sleep wake cycle
Human circadian rhythm does not adjust easily
Circadian rhythm that affect eating/drinking, urination, hormone secretion, metabolism, drug sensitivity, and other things
Circadian rhythms for mood

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3
Q

Endogenous

A

Biological clocks influence biological rhythms
E.g. internal to the individual
E.g. Circadian rhythm

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4
Q

Exogenous

A

Changes in the environment influence biological rhythms

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5
Q

Changes in cortisol throughout 24hrs

A

Decreases before nighttime
Increases across the night
Peaks when wake up in the morning, then begins to decrease

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6
Q

Changes in melatonin throughout 24hrs

A

Increases before bed (about 2-3hrs before)
Is high throughout nighttime
Decreases before wake up

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7
Q

Changes in growth hormone throughout 24hrs

A

Increases sharply at beginning of night
Decreases with time over sleep
Low during the day

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8
Q

Changes in heart rate throughout 24hrs

A

Decreases as approach bedtime
Slowest when sleeping
Increases as wake up in morning

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9
Q

Changes in temperature throughout 24hrs

A

Increases before bed
Decreases during nighttime
Increases once wake up

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10
Q

Changes in cell replication throughout 24hrs

A

Increase at night
Decrease during the day

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11
Q

Zeitgeber

A

Stimulus that resets the circadian rhythm (aka time giver)
External cues that keep you in sync (entrained) with the environment’s cycles
Light is dominant zeitgeber for land animals (electric less effective)
Tide is dominant for marine animals
Others: exercise, meals, temperature
NOT social stimuli unless involves one of the above

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12
Q

Circadian rhythm in blind people

A

Some set circadian rhythms by noise, temperature, meals, activity
Others not sensitive to these produce rhythms longer than 24hrs
More than half of blind people report sleep problems
Can be one of most burdensome aspects of blindness
Drift out of phase with desired time for sleeping
Melatonin can help them stay on normal schedule

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13
Q

Jet Lag

A

Disruption of circadian rhythms due to crossing time zones
Difficulting initiating/maintaining nighttime sleep, daytime sleepiness, decreases alertness, loss of concentration, impaired performance, fatigue, irritability, disorientation, depressed mood, gastrointestinal disturbance
Increases cortisol which can damage hippocampus

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14
Q

Phase Delay

A

Stay awake later and then awaken late next morning (westward)
Most people find this easier

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15
Q

Phase Advance

A

Sleep earlier and wake earlier (eastward)

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16
Q

Chronotypes

A

Described as morning or evening people (not binary)
Classify by middle of sleep period on vacation
Most people are intermediate between extremes

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17
Q

Early Chronotype

A

Morning people
Awaken early, reach peak productivity early, become less alert later in the day
Most impaired as shift workers
Protective factor against mental illness

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18
Q

Late Chronotype

A

Evening people
Warm up more slowly, reach peak in later afternoon or evening
Spending time outside with natural light can turn them into morning people
More adolescents/young adults
More men
Higher mental illness, worse bipolar symptomatology

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19
Q

Free Running Rhythm

A

Internal cycles that are decoupled from external/exogenous cues
E.g. living on a submarine
Operate on a little longer than 24hrs
Causes cycle shift gradually

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20
Q

Curt Richter

A

Brain generates its own rhythms
Biological clock
Remains steady despite food and water deprivation, x rays, tranquilizers, alcohol, anesthesia, lack of oxygen, most kinds of brain damage, or removal of endocrine organs

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21
Q

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A

Main driver of rhythms for sleep and body temperature
Part of hypothalamus, just above the optic chiasm
Damage to this area causes body’s rhythms to become erratic
Generates circadian rhythms in a genetically controlled manner
Even if disconnected/isolated from other areas of body, continue to produce circadian rhythm action potentials

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22
Q

Describe Per & CRY influences

A

See graphs and explanations in note

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23
Q

Retinohypothalamic path

A

Small branch of optic nerve which alters the SCN’s settings
Retinohypothalamic pathways come from retinal ganglion cells that have own photopigment (melanopsin)
Located mainly near the nose, see toward the periphery
Respond to light slowly and turn off slowly when light ceases (average amount of light)
Respond best to short wavelength (blue) light (why screens prevent sleep)

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24
Q

Melanopsin

A

Photopigment not found in rods and cones
In retinohypothalamic path

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25
Q

Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs)

A

Can receive input from rods and cones
Other ganglion cells can send signals to SCN
Both rods and cones and ipRGCs contribute to circadian photoentrainment
M1 cells: non-image forming, ambient light info/how light or dark it is (influences Per and Cry proteins transcription)
Damage before SCN = light doesn’t work as zeitgerber

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26
Q

Pineal Gland

A

Endocrine gland located posterior to thalamus
Releases melatonin, found in almost all animals, plants, and bacteria
Released mostly at night, increases sleepiness in humans
In nocturnal animals it increases wakefulness
Pineal gland tumour can cause people to stay awake for days at a time
Helps control onset of puberty and bodily adjustments to changes of season (e.g. hibernation)

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27
Q

Sleep

A

State the brain actively produces
Characterized by decreased activity and decreased response to stimuli

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28
Q

Coma

A

Extended period of unconsciousness caused by head trauma, stroke, or disease
Low level of brain activity
Little or no response to stimuli
People in a coma either die or begin to recover within a few weeks

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29
Q

Vegetative State

A

Alternates between periods of sleep and moderate arousal
Even during aroused state person shows no awareness of surroundings and no purposeful behaviour
Breathing is more regular
Painful stimulus produces at least the automatic responses of increased heart rate, breathing, and sweating
Can last for months or years

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30
Q

Minimally Conscious State

A

Brief periods of purposeful actions and limited amount of speech comprehension
Can last for months or years

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31
Q

Brain Death

A

Condition with no sign of brain activity and no response to any stimulus
Ensure this is constant for 24 hours before pronouncing brain death
Ethical to remove life support

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32
Q

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

A

Records an average of the electrical potentials of cells and fibers in brain areas nearest to electrodes
Monitor brain activity during sleep

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33
Q

Electromyogram (EMG)

A

Muscular measurement

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34
Q

Electrooculogram (EOG)

A

Eye tracking

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35
Q

Electrocardiograph (ECG)

A

Measure heart rate

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36
Q

Polysomnography

A

Combining different metrics for multimodal analysis

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37
Q

Alpha Waves

A

Characteristic of relaxation

38
Q

Awake

A

8-13 cycles per second

39
Q

Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep

A

Eyes are stationary

40
Q

NREM Stage 1

A

4-8 cycles per second
EEG shows irregular, jagged, low voltage waves
Brain activity is less than in relaxed wakefulness, higher than other sleep stages

41
Q

NREM Stage 2

A

4-8 cycles per second
0.5-2 second spindles at 12 and 14 CPS thalamus
Anterior cingulate cortex
K-complexes
Sleep spindles

42
Q

K-Complex

A

Sharp wave associated with a temporary inhibition of neuronal firing (amplitude spike)

43
Q

Sleep Spindle

A

Burst of 12-14 Hz waves for at least half a second
Result from oscillating interactions between cells in thalamus and cortex
Increase in number after learning
Number of sleep spindles correlates positively with improvements in certain types of memory
Consistent activity from one night to another
Can predict nonverbal tests of IQ

44
Q

NREM Stage 3

A

Slow wave sleep
Begin to see slow wave/delta wave pattern
Approaching less than 4.5 cycles per second
Heart, breathing, and brain activity decrease
Slow, large amplitude waves become more common
Fewer slow waves than stage 4
Slow waves indicate neuronal activity is highly synchronized
Occurs mostly earlier in sleep period

45
Q

Stage 4: rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

A

Low amplitude high frequency waves
Increases later in the sleep period

46
Q

Paradoxical Sleep

A

Another name for REM sleep
Combines characteristics of both wakefulness (increased brain activity) and sleep (low levels of body activity)

47
Q

Michel Jouvet

A

Trying to test learning abilities of cats after removal of cerebral cortex
Realized that certain areas of brain activity was high but neck was relaxed

48
Q

Kleitman and Aserinsky

A

Discovered that people move their eyes during sleep
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep: synonymous with paradoxical sleep

49
Q

Characteristics of REM Sleep

A

Irregular, low voltage fast waves that indicate increased neuronal activity
Postural muscles of body are more relaxed than during other stages
Associated with erections/vaguinal moistening
Heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, facial twitches fluctuate
Increased activity in ventral visual association areas
Reduced activation in frontal area & primary visual cortex
Combines aspects of deep and light sleep

50
Q

Sleep Cycles

A

Each cycle lasts about 90 mins
Stage 1 - stage 2 - slow wave - stage 2 - REM
Slow wave sleep predominate early in the night
REM occupies increasing percentage over time
Sleep stage patterns varies with age, health, and other factors

51
Q

Dement and Kleitman

A

People report dreams more often during REM
Dreams during REM more likely to include visual imagery and complicated plots

52
Q

Reticular Formation

A

Structure that extends from medulla into forebrain
Cut through midbrain damages reticular formation
Some neurons in reticular formation have axons ascending into brain, some have axons descending into spinal cord
Those with axons descending into spinal cord form part of the medial tract of motor control
Neurons with ascending axons are suited to regulate arousal

53
Q

Pontomesencephalon

A

Part of reticular formation that contributes to cortical arousal
Neurons receive input from many sensory systems and generate activity of their own, varying with circadian rhythm
Axons extend into forebrain
Some axons release GABA (Inhibits/interrupts behaviour, Promotes slow wave sleep)
Some axons release acetylcholine, glutamate, dopamine (Produce arousal in hypothalamus, thalamus, and basal forebrain, produce wakefulness by regulating levels of potassium and other ions that produce constant state of arousal)

54
Q

Locus Coeruleus

A

Small structure in the pons
Usually inactive especially during sleep
Emits bursts of impulses in response to meaningful events, especially ones that produce emotional arousal
Axons release norepinephrine throughout cortex
Small area with big influence
Output from locus coeruleus is called a ‘gain’

55
Q

Locus Coeruleus ‘gains’

A

Increases activity of most active neurons
Decreases activity of less active neurons
Produces enhanced attention to important information and enhanced memory

56
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Intermingled neurons that produce different effects
One axon pathway releases histamine (excitatory neurotransmitter, enhances arousal and alertness)
Pathway from lateral & posterior nuclei of hypothalamus release peptide neurotransmitter called orexin or hypocretin (enhance wakefulness and activity, for staying awake)

57
Q

Sleep & Brain Activity

A

Depends on decreased sensory input to cerebral cortex (inhibition - GABA)
Neurons in thalamus become hyperpolarized, decreasing readiness to respond to stimuli
Moderate amount of responsiveness remains (e.g. wake up to loud sounds)

58
Q

Exceptions to Sleep & brain Inhibition

A

Sleepwalking: motor cortex and some other ares remain awake
Lucid dreaming: activity in frontal and temporal cortex
Sleep paralysis: pons remains in REM to prevent movement

59
Q

PET During Sleep

A

Difficult to inject chemicals without waking
Insert cannula in arm and sleep with heads attached (prevent movement)
Stay awake one night prior to increase sleep during night 2

60
Q

Brain Activity During Sleep

A

Increased activity: Pons, limbic system, parts of temporal and parietal cortex
Decreased activity: Primary visual cortex, motor cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

61
Q

Pons-geniculate-occipital (PGO waves)

A

Distinctive pattern of high amplitude electrical potentials
Detected first in pons, then in lateral geniculate nucleus, then occipital cortex

62
Q

Carbachol

A

Stimulates acetylcholine synapses
Moves sleeper into REM when injected

63
Q

Hormones that interrupt REM

A

Serotonin & norepinephrine

64
Q

Sleep deprivation and attention

A

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC): related to attention control
Attention lapses increases when sleep debt increases

65
Q

Sleep deprivation and memory

A

Depleted sleep decreases proportion of content remembered
Buildup of adenosine with sleep deprivation which suppresses learning mechanisms in hippocampus
REM disruptions particularly detrimental

66
Q

Sleep deprivation and injury

A

Cognitive deficits resulting from sleep deprivation create real life consequences (e.g. more car accidents)
More sleep = less physical injury incidents

67
Q

Sleep deprivation and emotion

A

Sleep loss triggers changes in negative emotional processing (irritability, emotional volatility, anxiety and aggression, and suicidal ideation, attempts, contemplation)
Sleep deprived people show greater activity in amygdala
Decreased connectivity between amygdala and prefrontal cortex (more emotionally reactive)

68
Q

3 Functions of Sleep

A

Restoration
Clearance
Memory

69
Q

Restoration

A

To restore and replenish various substances needed for proper brain health and function
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) a key energy source for neural function spikes after onset of sleep

70
Q

Clearance

A

Clearing various undesirable substances that have built up during wakefulness (e.g. adenosine or molecules that impair functioning)
Movement of substances through the interstitial space more efficient while rats are asleep (interstitial space expands during sleep)
Rate of Beta-amyloid clearance greater during sleep

71
Q

Memory & Sleep

A

Studying before bed and testing the following day at 10am and 10pm increased retention
Sleeping between study and test sessions improves performance in test sessions

72
Q

Associative Processing

A

Hard for body to make sense of information when dreaming
Activation synthesis model - due to deactivation of prefrontal cortex (see note)

73
Q

Lucid Dreaming

A

Hybrid state
Reduction in frontal processing and visual cortex as compared to when awake
Slightly more activation in frontal compared to REM

74
Q

Insomnia

A

Inadequate sleep
Impairs memory, attention, cognition
Magnifies unpleasant emotional reactions
Increases risk of depression

75
Q

Onset Insomnia

A

Difficulty getting to sleep

76
Q

Maintenance Insomnia

A

Difficulty staying asleep

77
Q

Causes of Insomnia

A

Noise, light, uncomfortable temperatures, stress, pain, diet, medications
Late night exercise or eating
Irregular bedtime, late night media use
Epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, brain tumours, depression, anxiety, or other neurological or psychiatric conditions
Use of sleeping pills (inability to sleep without them)

78
Q

Sleep Paralysis

A

State in which muscle immobilization, normally characteristic of REM sleep, occurs even though the person is not longer actually sleeping

79
Q

Hypnagogic Hallucinations

A

When going to sleep

80
Q

Hypnopompic Hallucinations

A

When waking up

81
Q

Sleep Apnea

A

Impaired ability to breathe while sleeping
Breathless periods of a minute or so, awaken gasping for air
May not remember awakenings
Increases risk of stroke, heart problems, and other disorders
Multiple brain areas that have lost neurons
Deficiencies of learning, reasoning, attention, impulse control

82
Q

Causes of Sleep Apnea

A

Genetics, hormones, old age deterioration of brain mechanisms that regulate breathing
Obese men have narrow airways and have to breathe faster when awake, can’t maintain this rhythm at night

83
Q

Sleep Apnea Treatment

A

Lose weight
Avoid alcohol and tranquilizers
Mask that covers nose and delivers air under enough pressure to keep breathing passages open (continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machine
Surgery on jaw or breathing spaces only sometimes helps

84
Q

Narcolepsy Symptoms

A

Attacks of sleepiness during the day
Occasional cataplexy
Sleep paralysis
Hypnagogic hallucinations

85
Q

Occasional cataplexy

A

Attack of muscle weakness while the person remains awake
Often triggered by strong emotions (e.g. anger, excitement)

86
Q

Causes of Narcolepsy

A

Flu (H1N1 flu virus)
Lack hypothalamic cells that produce and release orexin
Could be due to an autoimmune reaction
Deficiency of orexin may be a cause

87
Q

Narcolepsy Treatment

A

Stimulants that increase dopamine and norepinephrine

88
Q

Periodic Limb Movement Disorder

A

Repeated involuntary movement of the legs and sometimes arm during sleep
Mostly middle aged people and older
Legs kick once every 20-30 seconds, mostly during non REM sleep

89
Q

REM Behaviour Disorder

A

Move around vigorously during REM periods
Appear to be acting out their dreams
Frequently dream about defending themselves from an attack
Often injure themselves or damage property
Could be due to inadequate inhibitory transmission

90
Q

Night Terrors

A

Experiences of intense anxiety from which a person awakens screaming in terror
Usually during non REM sleep
More common in children
Dream content is either simple (e.g. one image) or entirely lacking

91
Q

Sleepwalking

A

Runs in families, mostly occurs in children
More common when people are sleep deprived or under unusual stress
Most common during slow wave sleep
Actions are poorly planned and not remembered

92
Q

Sexsomnia

A

Sleeping people engage in sexual behaviour (with partner or by masturbation)
Don’t remember
Many people with sexsomnia were sleepwalkers as children

PSYCH261 (7 decks)

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