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CHM040 - BIOMOLECULES > Chapter 7: Carbohydrates > Flashcards

Chapter 7: Carbohydrates Flashcards

1
Q

It is the most abundant class of bioorganic molecules on planet Earth

A

Carbohydrates

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2
Q

Abundance of Carbohydrates in human body

A

relatively low

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3
Q

carbohydrates constitute about _____ by mass of dry ______ _______

A
  • 75%
  • plant materials
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4
Q

Substance that do not contain carbon

A

Bioinorganic Substances

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5
Q

What Bioinorganic Substances are in the Human body?

A

Water (about 70%)
Inorganic salts (about 5%)

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6
Q

Substances that contain carbon

A

Bioorganic Substances

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7
Q

What Bioorganic Substances are in the Human body?

A

Proteins (about 15%)
Lipids (about 8%)
Carbohydrates (about 2%)
Nucleic acids (about 2%)

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8
Q

Two main uses for the carbohydrates in plants

A
  1. In the form of cellulose, carbohydrates serve as structural elements
  2. In the form of starch, they provide energy reserves for the plants
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9
Q

What is the major carbohydrate source for humans and animals?

A

Dietary intake of plant materials

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10
Q

Functions of Carbohydrates in Humans

A
  1. Carbohydrate oxidation provides energy
  2. Provides a short term energy reserve
  3. Supply carbon atoms for the synthesis of other biochemical substances
  4. Essential components in the mechanisms of genetic control of growth and development of living cells
  5. Carbohydrates linked to lipids are structural components of cell membranes
  6. Carbohydrates linked to proteins function in a variety of cell–cell and cell–molecule recognition processes
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11
Q

Biochemical substances

A

proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

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12
Q
  • lowest number of specific molecule
  • the simplest whole number ratio of atoms present in a compound
A

Empirical formula

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13
Q

General formula of Carbohydrates

A

CnH2nOn which can be written as Cn(H2O)n

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14
Q

Cn(H2O)n — the basis for the term

A

carbohydrate (“hydrate of carbon”)

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15
Q

A carbohydrate is a ______ ________, a ________ _________, or a compound that yields polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones upon hydrolysis

A

polyhydroxy aldehyde
polyhydroxy ketone

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16
Q

CHO

A

Aldehyde group

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17
Q

C=O

A

Ketone group

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18
Q

Types of Carbohydrates

A
  1. Monosaccharide
  2. Disaccharide
  3. Oligosaccharide
  4. Polysaccharide
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19
Q

Carbohydrates are classified based on

A

molecular size

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20
Q
  • a carbohydrate that contains a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone unit
  • water-soluble, white, crystalline solids
A

Monosaccharide

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21
Q

Monosaccharide cannot be broken down into ____ ___ by _____ _____

A
  • simpler units
  • hydrolysis reaction
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22
Q
  • a carbohydrate that contains two monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other
  • crystalline, water-soluble substances
A

Disaccharides

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23
Q

Example of Disaccharide carbohydrates

A

Sugar (table sugar)
Lactose (milk sugar)

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24
Q

Product of the Hydrolysis of a disaccharide

A

two monosaccharide units

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25
Q

a carbohydrate that contains 3-10 monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other

A

Oligosaccharide

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26
Q

_____ oligosaccharides are seldom encountered in biochemical systems

A

Free

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27
Q

Products of complete hydrolysis of an oligosaccharide

A
  • trisaccharide > 3 monosaccharide units
  • hexasaccharide > 6 monosaccharide units
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28
Q

a polymeric carbohydrate that contains many monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other

A

Polysaccharide

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29
Q

Number of monosaccharide units present in polysaccharide

A

a few hundred units to over 50,000 units

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30
Q

Functional group that is always present in a carbohydrate molecule

A

Hydroxyl group

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31
Q

What is the product of complete hydrolysis of a polysaccharide?

A

Monosaccharides

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32
Q

D-

A

Dextro means right

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33
Q

L-

A

Levo means left

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34
Q

D- and L- differ in the ____ _______ of _____ in the molecule

A

spatial arrangements of atoms

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35
Q

A carbon atom that has four different groups bonded to it

A

Chiral carbon

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36
Q

Images that coincide at all points when the images are laid upon each other

A

Superimposable mirror images

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37
Q

Images where not all points coincide when the images are laid upon each other

A

Nonsuperimposable mirror images

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38
Q

The Importance of Chirality

A
  • both forms are biologically active, giving a different response
  • both elicit the same response, but giving different number of response
  • Sometimes only one of the two forms is biochemically active
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39
Q

A compound that has _ ____ _____ may exist in a _______ of ___ ______ _____

A
  • n chiral centers
  • maximum of 2n stereoisomeric forms
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40
Q

It is a compound that rotates the plane of polarized light

A

Optically active compound

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41
Q

It is a chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized light in a clockwise direction

A

Dextrorotatory compound

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42
Q

It is a chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized light in a counterclockwise direction

A

Levorotatory compound

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43
Q

Classification of Monosaccharides based on the type of carbonyl group

A
  1. Aldose
  2. Ketose
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44
Q
  • it is a monosaccharide that contains an aldehyde functional group
  • are polyhydroxy aldehydes
A

Aldose

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45
Q
  • it is a monosaccharide that contains a ketone functional group
  • are polyhydroxy ketones
A

Ketose

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46
Q

Monosaccharides are often classified by both their ____ of ____ ____ and their ________ _____

A
  • number of carbon atoms
  • functional group
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47
Q

An aldose with 3 carbons

A

Aldotriose

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48
Q

A ketose with 6 carbons

A

Ketohexose

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49
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

A
  • D-Glyceraldehyde and Dihydroxyacetone
  • D-Glucose
  • D-Galactose
  • D-Fructose
  • D-Ribose
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50
Q
  • simplest monosaccharide
  • these triose are important intermediates in the process of glycolysis
A

D-Glyceraldehyde and Dihydroxyacetone

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51
Q
  • found in high amounts in ripe fruits
  • blood sugar
  • also called dextrose
A

D-Glucose

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52
Q
  • seldom encountered as a free monosaccharide
  • Synthesized from glucose in the body for the production of lactose
  • called brain sugar
A

D-Galactose

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53
Q

It is a disaccharide of glucose and galactose

A

Lactose

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54
Q

Why is the D-Galactose called brain sugar?

A

because it is a component of glycoproteins found in brain and nerve tissue

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55
Q

D-Galactose is present in the ______ _______ that distinguish various types of blood (A, B, AB, and O)

A

chemical markers

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56
Q
  • biochemically the most important ketohexose
  • also known as levulose and fruit sugar
  • sweetest-tasting of all sugar
A

D-Fructose

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57
Q

D-Fructose is found in

A
  • found in many fruits
  • present ni honey in equal amounts with glucose
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58
Q

Use of D-Fructose

A

Used as a dietary sugar because less is needed for the same amount of sweetness

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59
Q
  • 5-carbon sugar (pentose)
  • component of ribonucleic acids (RNAs) and energy-rich compounds such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
A

D-Ribose

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60
Q

It can oxidize both ends of a monosaccharide at the same time

A

Strong oxidizing agents

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61
Q

Strong oxidizing agents can oxidize both ends of a monosaccharide at the same time to produce a

A

dicarboxylic acid

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62
Q

Such polyhydroxy dicarboxylic acids are known as _____ _____

A

aldaric acids

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63
Q

It is an acetal formed from a cyclic monosaccharide by replacement of the hemiacetal carbon -OH group with an -OR group

A

Glycoside

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64
Q

A glycoside produced from glucose

A

Glucoside

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65
Q

A glycoside produced from galactose

A

Galactoside

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66
Q

Monosaccharide Derivatives

A

Acidic Sugars
Sugar Alcohols
Glycosides
Phosphate Esters
Amino Sugars

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67
Q

It is obtained by oxidation

A

Acidic Sugars

68
Q

It is obtained by reduction

A

Sugar Alcohols

69
Q

A reaction with alcohol

A

Glycosides

70
Q

Classes of Acidic Sugars

A

Aldonic acid
Alduronic acid
Aldaric acid

71
Q

A true sugar alcohol

A

Alditol

72
Q

Acid group in Aldonic acid

A

Top

73
Q

Acid group in Alduronic acid

A

Bottom

74
Q

Acid groups in Aldaric acid

A

Top and Bottom

75
Q

Alcohol groups in Alditol

A

Both top and bottom

76
Q

What are the 4 Monosaccharides

A

D-Glucose
D-Galactose
D-Fructose
D-Ribose

77
Q

What joined the two monosaccharides that consist the disaccharides?

A

Oxygen bridge

78
Q

It is the bond between two monosaccharides resulting from the reaction between the hemiacetal carbon atom -OH group of one monosaccharide and an -OH group on the other monosaccharide

A

Glycosidic bond/linkage

79
Q

What are the particular disaccharides we commonly see?

A

Maltose
Lactose
Sucrose

80
Q

Maltose, Lactose, or Sucrose are produced in cells because the reactions are ______ by _____

A

catalyzed by enzymes

81
Q
  • often called malt sugar
  • produced whenever the polysaccharide starch breaks down
  • made up of two D-glucose units, one of which must be α-D-glucose
  • α(1→4) linkage
A

Maltose

82
Q

malt

A

germinated barley that has been baked and ground; contains this disaccharide

83
Q

Maltose is produced whenever the polysaccharide _____ breaks down

A

starch

84
Q
  • the enzyme that breaks the glucose–glucose α(1→4) linkage present in maltose
  • found both in the human body and in yeast
A

Maltase

85
Q

Consequently, maltose is _______ easily by humans and is readily _______ by yeast

A
  • digested
  • fermented
86
Q
  • an intermediate in the hydrolysis of the polysaccharide cellulose
  • contains two D-glucose monosaccharide units
  • a D-glucose units function as a hemiacetal that has a β configuration
  • β(1→4) linkage
A

Cellobiose

87
Q

Reason why cellubiose cannot be digested by humans and fermented by yeast

A

Since both human body and yeast lack enzyme cellobiose, it cannot break the glucose-glucose β(1→4) linkage of cellobiose

88
Q
  • major sugar found in milk
  • made up of a β-D-galactose unit and a D-glucose unit joined by a β(1→4) linkage glycosidic linkage
A

Lactose

89
Q

Formation of Lactose

A

when galactose bonds to glucose

90
Q

Lactose can be hydrolyzed by acid or by the enzyme _______, forming an ________ ______ of galactose and glucose

A
  • lactase
  • equimolar mixture
91
Q

It is a condition in which people lack the enzyme lactase

A

Lactose Intolerance

92
Q

___ of adults (the majority) are lactose intolerant

A

60%

93
Q

What happens when lactose molecules remain in the intestine undigested?

A

They attract water to themselves, causing fullness, discomfort, cramping, nausea, and diarrhea

94
Q
  • common table sugar
  • is the most abundant of all disaccharides and occurs throughout the plant kingdom
  • α-D-glucose and β-F-fructose in an α,β(1→2) glycosidic linkage
  • a nonreducing sugar
  • exists in only one form
A

Sucrose

95
Q

What oligosaccharides are found in onions, cabbage, broccoli, brussel sprouts, whole wheat?

A

Two naturally occuring oligosaccharides

96
Q

What oligosaccharides are found in all types of beans?

A

trisaccharide raffinose and tetrasaccharide stachyose

97
Q

What do you call the toxin that is produced by the potato plant?

A

Solanine

98
Q

What is the use of Solanine in a potato plant?

A

A defense against insects and predators

99
Q

Solanine amounts in potatoes _______ when potatoes ______ and when they are _______ to _______

A
  • increase
  • sprout
  • exposed to sunlight
100
Q

Green coloration in the skin of potatoes

A

It denotes the presence of chlorophyll, and the toxin solanine. Such potatoes need to be deeply peeled before use

101
Q

Blood Type that is Universal donor

A

Type O

102
Q

Blood Type that is Universal acceptor

A

Type AB

103
Q

An alternate name for a polysaccharide

A

Glycan

104
Q

Important parameters that distinguish various polysaccharides from each other

A
  1. The identity of the monosaccharide repeating unit(s) in the polymer chain
  2. The length of the polymer chain
  3. As with disaccharides, the type of glycosidic linkage between monomer units
  4. The degree of branching of the polymer chain
105
Q

A polysaccharide in which only one type of monosaccharide monomer is present

A

Homopolysaccharide

106
Q

A polysaccharide in which more than one (usually two) type of monosaccharide monomer is present

A

Heteropolysaccharide

107
Q

A polysaccharide that is a storage form for monosaccharides

A

Storage polysaccharide

108
Q

Use of storage polysaccharide

A

an energy source in cells

109
Q
  • has a structure similar to that of amylopectin
  • both (1→4) and (1→6) linkages are present
  • an ideal storage form for glucose
A

Glycogen

110
Q

Difference of Glycogen and Amylopectin

A
  • number of glucose units between branches
  • total number of glucose units
111
Q

Starch:
Source of Amylose

A

Plant

112
Q

Starch:
Source of Amylopectin

A

Plant

113
Q

Starch:
Subunit of Amylose

A

α-glucose

114
Q

Starch:
Subunit of Amylopectin

A

α-glucose

115
Q

Starch:
Bond of Amylose

A

1→4

116
Q

Starch:
Bond of Amylopectin

A

1→6

117
Q

Starch:
Branch of Amylose

A

No (Linear)

118
Q

Starch:
Branch of Amylopectin

A

Yes (~per 20 subunits)

119
Q

Source of Glycogen

A

Animal

120
Q

Subunit of Glycogen

A

α-glucose

121
Q

Bonds in Glycogen

A

1→4 and 1→6

122
Q

Branches of Glycogen

A

Yes (~per 10 subunits)

123
Q
  • the structural component of plant cell walls
  • most abundant naturally occurring polysaccharide
  • an unbranched glucose polymer
  • β(1→4)
A

Cellulose

124
Q

High concentrations of cellulose can be found

A

“woody” portions of plants—stems, stalks, and trunks

125
Q

It is almost pure cellulose

A

Cotton (95%)

126
Q

It is about 50% cellulose

A

Wood

127
Q
  • second most abundant naturally occurring polysaccharide
  • gives rigidity to the exoskeletons of crabs, lobsters, shrimp, insects, and other arthropods, in the cell walls of fungi
  • Polymer of the amino sugar N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (NAG)
A

Chitin

128
Q

A monosaccharide found in blood type oligosaccharide

A

N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (NAG)

129
Q

α(1→4) linkages

A

Maltose
Amylose

130
Q

α(1→4) and α(1→6) linkages

A

Amylopectin
Glycogen

131
Q

β(1→4) linkages

A

Lactose
Cellobiose
Cellulose

132
Q

α,β(1→2) linkages

A

Sucrose

133
Q
  • a polysaccharide with a disaccharide repeating unit
  • heteropolysaccharides
A

Acidic polysaccharide

134
Q

One of the disaccharide components

A

amino acid

135
Q

One or both of the disaccharide components

A

has a negative charge due to a sulfate group or a carboxyl group

136
Q

Two different monosaccharides are present in an alternating pattern

A

heteropolysaccharides

137
Q

Two of the most well-known acidic polysaccharides

A

hyaluronic acid and heparin

138
Q

Bonds of hyaluronic acid and heparin

A

unbranched-chain structures

139
Q
  • contains alternating residues of N acetyl-β-D-glucosamine and D- glucuronate
  • highly viscous
  • have a glass-like appearance (solution)
A

Hyaluronic acid

140
Q

Hyaluronic acid serves as a

A

lubricants in the fluid of joints

141
Q

Hyaluronic acid is associated with

A

the jelly-like consistency of the vitreous humor of the eye

142
Q

Greek word “hyalos” means

A

glass

143
Q
  • a blood anticoagulant
  • naturally present in mast cells
  • released at the site of tissue injury
A

Heparin

144
Q

Function of Heparin

A

Prevents the formation of clots in the blood and retards the growth of existing clots within the blood

145
Q

Applied as an anticoagulant to the interior/exterior surface of external objects that come in contact with blood to prevent the blood from clotting

A

Pharmaceutical-grade heparin

146
Q

Source of pharmaceutical heparin

A

intestinal or lung tissue of slaughter-house animals (pigs and cows)

147
Q

A dietary monosaccharide or dietary disaccharide

A

Simple carbohydrate

148
Q

are usually sweet to the taste and are commonly referred to as sugars

A

dietary monosaccharide or dietary disaccharide

149
Q

Two types of simple carbohydrate

A

Natural sugar
Refined sugar

150
Q

A sugar naturally present in whole foods

A

Natural Sugar

151
Q

A sugar that has been separated from its plant source

A

Refined Sugar

152
Q

Two important sources of natural sugars

A

Milk and Fresh fruit

153
Q

Major sources of refined sugars

A

Sugar beets and Sugar cane

154
Q

Refined sugars are often said to provide _____ ______ because they provide energy but few other nutrients

A

empty calories

155
Q

Natural sugars, on the other hand, are accompanied by ______

A

nutrients

156
Q

Wide range of biochemical functions of mono-, di-. and oligosaccharide attached through glycosidic linkages to lipid molecules (glycolipids) and protein molecules (glycoproteins)

A
  • allowing cells to interact with invading bacteria and viruses
  • enabling cells of differing function to recognize each other
157
Q

A lipid molecule that has one or more carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units covalently bonded to it

A

Glycolipid

158
Q

A protein molecule that has one or more carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units covalently bonded to it

A

Glycoprotein

159
Q

Glycolipids called __________ and ________ occur extensively in ____ ______

A
  • cerebrosides and gangliosides
  • brain tissue
160
Q

A glycoproteins that are key components of the body’s immune system response to invading foreign material

A

Immunoglobins

161
Q

are Y-shaped proteins that recognize unique markers (antigen) on pathogens

A

Antibodies or Immunoglobuins

162
Q

Five types of Antibodies

A

IgA
IgD
IgE
IgG
IgM

163
Q
  • secreted into mucous, saliva, tears, colustrum
  • tags pathogens for destruction
A

IgA

164
Q
  • B-cell receptor
  • stimulates release of IgM
A

IgD

165
Q
  • binds to mast cells and basophils
  • allergy and antiparasitic activity
A

IgE

166
Q
  • binds to phagocytes
  • main blood antibody for secondary responses
  • crosses placenta
A

IgG

167
Q
  • fixes complement
  • main antibody of primary responses
  • B-cell receptor
  • immune system memory
A

IgM

CHM040 - BIOMOLECULES (4 decks)

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