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bio module 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

does cell division occur at all times? explain why yes or no

A

no it doesnt because uncontrolled cell division (cell division that happens all the time) is dangerous and can lead to cancer

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1
Q

what are cyclins?

A

proteins that appear and disappear repeatedly (cyclically)

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2
Q

what are cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK)?

A

enzymes that are activated by cyclins (proteins that appear and disappear cyclically)

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3
Q

are CDK’s (cyclin-dependent kinases) always present and running?

A

yes they are always present but no they are only running when activated by a cyclin protein

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4
Q

when does the amount of cyclin protein increase and decrease

A

increases: mitosis
decreases: interphase

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5
Q

explain the three checkpoints in the cell cycle

A
  1. before entering S phase: check if DNA is damaged
  2. DNA replication checkpoint at the end of G2: is all DNA replicated?
  3. Spindle assembly checkpoint (before anaphase): are all chromosomes attached to the spindle
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6
Q

what are cell membranes composed of (3 things)

A

lipids, proteins and carbohydrates

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7
Q

a selective barriers that controls the movement of molecules between the inside and the outside of the cell

A

the plasma membrane/ cell membrane

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8
Q

what organelles do the endomembrane system involve

A

nucleus, nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi appartus, lusosomes, vesicles and plasma membrane

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9
Q

organelles involved in harnessing energy and likely evolved from free-living prokaryotes

A

mitochondria and chlroplasts

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10
Q

state the cell theory (3)

A
  1. all organisms are made up of cells
  2. all cells come from preexisting cells
  3. there is not life without cells (the cell is the fundamental unit of life)
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11
Q

what does amphipathic mean?

A

both hydrophilic and hydrophobic

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12
Q

what part of the phospholipid is hydrophilic and what part is hydrophobic

A

hydrophilic head, polar
hydrophobic tail, non polar

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13
Q

what are the four proteins in the membrane

A
  1. anchors
  2. transporters
  3. enzymes
  4. receptors (for da signals)
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14
Q

which protein is permanently stuck in the cell membrane and which is not?

A

integral are permanent
peripheral are temporary

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15
Q

diffusion moves from ________ concentration to ________ concentration

A

higher solute concentration to lower solute concentration

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16
Q

what are functinos of the golgi apparatus (3)

A
  1. to further modify proteins and lipids produced in the ER
  2. to sort proteins and lipids as they move to their final destinations
  3. to synthesize the cell’s carbohydrates
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17
Q

define catabolism and anabolism

A

Catabolism: breaking down of macromolecules into smaller units, producing ATP

Anabolism: building of macromolecules from smaller units, using ATP, cost ATP, DOES NOT PRODUCE ATP

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18
Q

weak bonds have _______potential energy and strong bonds have _______ potential energy and why?

A

more, less
because strong bonds require more energy to keep them together

because weak bonds require less energy to keep them together and therefore, more energy is stored

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19
Q

what are the two laws of thermodynamics?

A
  1. energy cannot be created nor destroyed
  2. as energy increases, entropy (amount of disorder) increases
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20
Q

what is our microbiome

A

The microbiome is the collection of all microbes, such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and their genes, that naturally live on our bodies and inside us

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21
Q

what is a microbe

A

things that are too small to be seen with the naked eye

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22
Q

involve the breaking and forming of bonds

A

chemical reactions

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23
Q

describe energetic coupling

A

spontaneous reacrtion drives a non spontaneous reaction (ex. primary and secondary active transport)

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24
Q

an enzyme that is activated or inhibited when binding to another molecule changes its shape.

A

allosteric enzyme

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25
Q

what are enzymes

A

enzymes are proteins, biological catalysts that help speed up reactions (they increase the rate of reactions) also reduces activation energy

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26
Q

what are ROS

A

reactive oxygen species: they are unstable oxygen that causes damage to cells

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27
Q

the amount of energy in a system able to do work

A

Gibbs free energy

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28
Q

if we add two reactions and the resulting delta G is negative this is an example of

A

energetic coupling (the spontaneous reaction drives the non-spontaneous reaction)

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29
Q

in a reaction there is a time where old bonds are breaking and new bonds are forming, unstable, large amount of energy

A

transition state

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30
Q

cellular respiration is a set of __________ processes

A

catabolic (breaking into smaller compounds, we break glucose)

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31
Q

electron carriers accept electrons and therefore are____

A

reduced

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32
Q

what are the three phases of glycolysis?

A
  1. prepatory phase: we add 2 phosphates to glucose, we use 2 ATP
  2. cleavage phase: 6 carbon glucose is cut into two 3 carbon pyruvate
  3. payoff phase: final results: 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate
33
Q

what happens during pyruvate oxidation

A

pyruvate is oxidized

so for 1 pyruvate (3 carbon molecule): it forms 1 carbon CO2 and 2 carbon acetyl COA enzyme molecules

so for 2 pyruvate we get 2 CO2 and 2 acetyl CoA and 2 NADH

34
Q

what happens in the krebs cycle

A

acetyl CoA (2 C) + oxaloacetate (4C) –> ciitrate 6C molecule

  • acetyl CoA is the fuel molecule

RESULTS: 2 ATP, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2, 6 NADH

35
Q

where does glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, krebs and ETC happen?

A

glycolysis: cytoplasm

pyruvate oxidation: mitochondrial matrix

krebs: mitochondrial matrix

ETC: inner mitochondrial membrane

36
Q

what is the final electron acceptor in ETC

A

oxygen

37
Q

describe the two components of ATP synthase

A

The F0 subunit forms a channel (in inner mitochondrial membrane like ETC) that rotates as protons pass through it

The F1 subunit then uses this rotational energy to catalyze the synthesis of ATP
Where ATP is generated

38
Q

what are the final products of the ETC in cellular respiration

A

28 ATP, 6 H2O

39
Q

what is fermentation

A

fermentation is the process in which we extract energy from fuel molecules without the presence of oxygen
- do not rely on oxygen as a final electron acceptor
- instead they use organic molecules as the final electron acceptor

40
Q

in lactic acid fermentation what is the final electorn acceotor

A

pyruvate

41
Q

in ehtanol fermentation what is the final electron acceptor

A

acedltedhye

42
Q

what are the electron donors in cellular respriation and photosynthesis

A

cellular respiration: NADH

Photosynthesis: H2O water!!!

43
Q

where does the photosynthethic ETC happen

A

thylakoid membrane of chlroplast

44
Q

where do the dark reactions/ calvin cycle take place?

A

stroma of chrlorplast

45
Q

what are the inputs and outputs of the light reaction and the dark reaction

A

light reaction:
- input of water
- ouput of O2

dark reaction:
- input of CO2
- output of sugar

46
Q

what is the photosynthetic pigment

A

chlorophyll

47
Q

what is a reaction centre and their role

A

pair of chlorophyll pigments
- they change photons (light energy) into chemical energy

48
Q

The regeneration phase of the Calvin cycle regnerates______ molecules of _______ from _______ molecules of ________.

A

3 RuBP
5
triose

49
Q

can white plants perform photosynthesis

A

no they cannot because they lack any pigment so therefore they must use the help of fungi

50
Q

what are the roles of PSII and PS1

A

PSII: absorbs light and then pulls electrons from water
PSI: absorbs light and produces electrons donor needed to reduce NADP+

51
Q

what is the Z scheme

A

in the photosynthethic ETC is describes the relationship with energy between the two photosystems

52
Q

what is cyclic electron transport

A

electrons reenter the ETC, electrons from photosystem I are redirected from ferredoxin back into the ETC
ROLE: generate more ATP

53
Q

WHEN are ROS more likely to occur?

A

when the light density is too high

54
Q

what are the two defence mechanisms to ROS?

A
  1. Antioxidants: detoxify ROS
  2. Xanthophylls: yellow orange pigments that convert excess light energy to heat and therefore reducing the rate at which electrons enter the ETC
55
Q

what are two photosynthetic challenges

A
  1. excess light energy
  2. photorespiration
56
Q

what is photorespiration

A

when rubisco binds to O2 instead of CO2 during the calvin cycle

57
Q

what is a defence mechanism for photorespriation?

A

c4 plants increase the amount of CO2 around rubisco to increase the change of rubisco binding to CO2 rather than O2

58
Q

photosynthetic effecienty

A

how much light is acc turned into chemical energy (max 4%)

59
Q

what is horizontal gene transfer

A

transfer of genetic material
1) DNA transfer by conjuction: two cells closely alligned theres a bridge and DNA passed through the bride formed between the cells
2) DNA transfer by transformation: no contact, DNA released into the environment by dead cells is taken up by a recipient cell
3) DNA transfer by transduction: DNA is transferred from a donor to a recipient cell by a virus (virus transfers genetic material from one bacterium to another)

60
Q

what is a harpoon DNA

A

a stray piece of DNA

61
Q

What are the two theories of evolution of photosynthesis in eukaryotes?

A
  1. Horizontal gene transfer
  2. duplicarion and divergence
62
Q

explain hypothesis 2 of evolution of photosynthesis

A

endosymbiosis: cyanobacterium was engulfed by an ancient eukaryotic cell

63
Q

why does cell division occur (4 reasons)

A

growth, cell replacement, healing, reproduction

64
Q

nondisjunction results in:

A

extra or missing chromosomes

65
Q

why is the cell cycle regulated

A

so that cell division occurs only at appropriate times and places

66
Q

what is cancer

A

cancer is uncontrolled cell division that results from mutations in genes that control cell division

67
Q

What is the difference between nondisjunction I and nondisjunction II

A

Nondisjunction I: failure of homologous chromosomes to separate in anaphase I

Nondisjunction II: failure of sister chromtids to separate in anaphase II

68
Q

what are 4 toxic mushrooms to avoid

A
  1. jack o lanterns
  2. death caps
  3. false morals
  4. destroying angels
69
Q

what is isoleucine

A

isoleucine is an oxygen carrying pigment in red blood cells, a low amount of isoleucine increases lifespan and decreases chances of developing cancer

70
Q

how do fungi get food?

A

they are heterotropic organisms, they feed by absorption

71
Q

how do fungi reproduce

A

asexually and sexually

72
Q

can fungi make their own food

A

no they are heterotropic

73
Q

what are fungal cell walls made of

A

chitin (same compound found in the exoskeleton of insects)

74
Q

what are filamentous fungi

A

multicellular strucutures with branching

75
Q

true or false: yeast is an example of filementouds fungi

A

no they are single celled

76
Q

what are mycorrhizal fungi

A

fungi that supply plant roots with nutrients from the soil and in return receive carbohydrates from their host

77
Q

what are two challenged fungi face in completing their life cycles?

A
  1. maintaining genetic diversity
  2. dispersal
78
Q

what does parasexual mean?

A

parasexual describes the crossing over process
-does not undergo meiosis

79
Q

what is karyogamy?

A

fusion of two nuclei followed by plasmogamy

80
Q

what is plasmogamy

A

cytoplasmic union of two cells

81
Q

describes a stage in the life cycle of some fungi in which plasmogamy is not followed immediatelt by karyogamy and the cells have unfused haploid nuclei from both parents

A

heterokaryotic

psychology (16 decks)

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