Chapter 2: Psychology as a Science

Question 1

Cecilia is using the formula F = M*A to solve a physics problem. Cecilia is using ________ reasoning.

A) empirical

B) hypothetico-deductive

C) inductive

D) deductive

Answer 1

Answer: D) deductive

Question 2

A researcher performs a previous study following the same procedures as the previous researcher to see if she will get the same results. This is an example of

A) plagiarism.

B) a descriptive technique.

C) an invalid research method.

D) a replication of studies.

Answer 2

Answer: D) a replication of studies

Question 3

Jennifer is a student researcher wants to study memory in children with autism. As Jennifer works part time in a school for children with autism, she plans to ask the parents of the students if they will allow their children to participate. What ethical guideline is Jennifer violating?

A) informed consent

B) participation must be voluntary

C) protect participants from harm

D) deception or incomplete disclosure

Answer 3

Answer: B) participation must be voluntary

Question 4

Naturalistic observation entails

A) examining behaviour in the setting in which it typically occurs.

B) the systematic, detailed study of a single individual.

C) examining existing records, such as census documents.

D) asking a sample of different individuals a set of questions.

Answer 4

Answer: A) Examining behaviour in the setting in which it typically occurs

Question 5

Cory is carrying out a research project using a blended model known as ________. This means that Cory will begin by reviewing previous research, will then identify a broad topic, and then will design his own study, developing a specific hypothesis to address a specific research prediction.

A) deductive reasoning

B) empirical reasoning

C) inductive reasoning

D) hypothetico-deductive reasoning

Answer 5

Answer: D) hypothetico-deductive reasoning

Question 6

The group of people that participate in an experiment is called a ________. The group of people that do not participate but to which the findings will be applied are called a ________.

A) experimental group; control group

B) sample; sample

C) sample; population

D) population; sample

Answer 6

Answer: C) sample; population

Question 7

Charlotte and Hunter have both found correlations in their psychology Honours studies. Charlotte’s correlation was -.85 and Hunter’s correlation was +62. Which of the following statements would be TRUE?

A) Charlotte found a stronger relationship between her variables than Hunter did.

B) Hunter found that as one variable increased the other decreased.

C) Hunter found a stronger relationship between his variables than Charlotte did.

D) Charlotte found that as one variable increased, the other variable also increased.

Answer 7

Answer: A) Charlotte found a stronger relationship between her variables than Hunter did.

Question 8

Dr. Fallon wishes to study the effect of an intervention program on children in grade 6 who have ADHD. In this study all children in grade 6 would be the ________ whereas children with ADHD in grade 6 would be the ________.

A) sample; population

B) population; sample

C) dependent variable; independent variable

D) independent variable; dependent variable

Answer 8

Answer: B) population; sample

Question 9

Joaquin is interested in whether the level of light (bright, moderate, low) effects worker productivity on an assembly line. He also wants to know if the type of light (fluorescent, yellow, or sunlight) makes a difference. Across three weeks, he adjusts the type and level of light in the factory and measures the number of items produced as well as the number of mistakes they made on the assembly line during each type and level of lighting. In Joaquin’s study, the number of items produced would be a(n) ________ variable and the number of errors made would be a(n) ________ variable.

A) dependent; independent

B) dependent; dependent

C) independent; independent

D) independent; dependent

Answer 9

Answer: B) dependent; dependent

Question 10

Bertrand is looking at a graph of the data of his correlational study. He finds that the data points from his study form a line that begins at the top left-hand side of the graph and goes to the bottom of the right-hand side of the graph. How should Bertrand interpret his results?

A) There is a negative correlation between his variables. Those who score high on variable A, tend to score low on variable B.

B) There is a positive correlation between his variables. Those who score high on variable A, tend to score low on variable B.

C) There is a positive correlation between his variables. Those who score high on variable A also tend to score high on variable B.

D) There is a negative correlation between his variables. Those who score low on variable A, also tend to score low on variable B.

Answer 10

Answer: A) There is a negative correlation between his variables. Those who score high on variable A, tend to score low on variable B.

Question 11

What is a Science?

Answer 11

1. The universe operates according to certain natural laws e.g.,
   Natural law of cause and effect, when something is set in motion, it
   has an effect on other things.
   -Psychologists look for the laws or theories that describe mental
   processes and behaviour.
2. Such laws are discoverable and testable
   Observation, can make predictions about what could happen, conduct
   an experiment to see if the predictions come true. 7

Question 12

Deductive, hypothetico-deductive, and inductive reasoning:

Answer 12

Deductive reasoning: Reasoning proceeding from broad basic
principles applied to specific situations.
e.g., Astrid believes that drinking red wine gives her migraines.
As such, when she’s at a dinner party and the only beverages
available are red wine and water, she sticks with water. What
type of reasoning is Astrid using?

Inductive reasoning: From empirical observations to general ideas.
e.g., Barney pulled an all-nighter to study before his last exam
and he failed it. With the exam before that, he got a good sleep
and he passed. Based on this, Barney predicts that he will do
better on his next exam if he gets a good sleep the night before.

Hypothetitico-Deductive Reasoning: Blended deductive and
inductive reasoning.
Today, when psychologists conduct research, they examine the
findings of other researchers first to look at broader topic, then
narrow it down to design their own studies based on specific
predictions

Question 13

The Science of Psychology:

Answer 13

Psychology - Using the scientific method to study human
behaviour and mental processes

Pseudopsychology (pseudoscience) - No use of the
scientific method when commenting on human behaviour
and mental processes
Ex: parapsychology, astrology, psychics etc.

“Astrology: understanding of the influence of the planets and
stars on earthly affairs allows them to both predict and affect
the destinies of individuals, groups, and nations.”

Question 14

Define population:

Answer 14

The entire group that is of interest to researchers

Question 15

Define sample:

Answer 15

A portion of any population that is selected for the study

Question 16

Define random selection:

Answer 16

Randomly choosing a sample from a population

Question 17

Define sampling bias:

Answer 17

Choosing a sample that does not represent your population.

Question 18

What are the 2 basic types of research methods?

Answer 18

Descriptive:
Research method used to observe and describe behaviour.
e.g., Teenagers who play violent videogames show a high level of
aggression as shown on their responses to a survey.

Experimental:
To demonstrate a cause and effect relationships between the
variables.
E.g., Manipulate a variable, such as type of videogame that a
participant such as a group of twenty 13 year olds play, to examine
the effect on a measure of aggression such as number of school
fights during the month. 61

Question 19

Types of descriptive research:

Answer 19

Case studies - focuses on a single person
o Pitfall - Researcher bias-researchers see what they expect to see in their studies

• Naturalistic observation - observe people behaving as they normally do
  o Pitfall - Hawthorne Effect-people behaving as they should because know that are
  being observed
• Surveys - use of a questionnaire of interview through email, telephone
  o Pitfall - Participant bias-people are providing opinions that may be not be reflective
  of their true attitudes or opinions

Question 20

Case study advantages and disadvantages:

Answer 20

• An intensive study of 1 or 2 people

Advantages:
o Only method you can use if the type of behaviour you are looking at is rare
o Very detailed

Disadvantages:
o You cannot generalize your results to all people
o Cannot determine cause and effect

Question 21

Examples of Case Studies:

Answer 21

-The case of Phineas Cage, laborer on train track, accidently stepped on a mine and
rod went through left side of his frontal lobe.

-Jean Piaget observed and studied children as case studies; in doing so
developed a theory of the stages of cognitive development.

-Sigmund Freud’s study of patients formed basis of Psychoanalytic theory.

-Dr. Brenda Milner investigation of Patient H.M’s memory after removal of his
hippocampi to remove epileptic seizures

Question 22

Naturalistic Observation advantages and disadvantages:

Answer 22

• Systematic people watching

Advantages:
o Can study things that are too unethical to do in an experiment or
that people might lie about

Disadvantages:
o Time consuming
o Cannot determine cause and effect

Question 23

Example of naturalistic observation:

Answer 23

Researchers observing children in their natural environment.

Question 24

Impact of Naturalistic observation:

Answer 24

-Hawthorne effect: What happens when people who are being observed
in studies or at their workplace improve or change some of their
behaviour simply because they are being watched or studied, not in
response to an experimental manipulation.

-Landsberger (1958) study: workers’ production increased when lowered
or increased lights. However, production could have increased due to
the workers knowing that they were being observed!

Question 25

Surveys advantages and disadvantages:

Answer 25

-Ask people directly about their behaviours

• Advantages:
  o Data collection is quick
  o Cheap
• Disadvantages:
  o Sometimes people don’t tell the truth
  o Cannot determine cause and effect

Question 26

Advantages and disadvantages of experimental research:

Answer 26

Advantages:
o Can establish cause and effect
o Can eliminate outside influences

• Disadvantages:
  o Might not be generalizable
  o Sometimes unethical

Question 27

Correlational Research: Correlation coefficient. positive correlation, and negative correlation:

Answer 27

• Correlation coefficient: a number between +1.00 and –1.00 expressing
  the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables
  under study
• A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the
  other does as well.
• A negative correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the
  other decreases.

Question 28

Correlation coefficient numbers:

Answer 28

+1.00 Perfect positive relationship

+ .88 Very strong positive relationship

+.62 Strong positive relationship

+.38 Moderate positive relationship

+.12 Weak positive relationship

0.00 No relationship

-.12 Weak negative relationship

-.38 Moderate negative relationship

-.62 Strong negative relationship

-.88 Very strong negative relationship

-1.00 Perfect negative relationship

Question 29

How do psychologists make sense of research results?

Answer 29

• Descriptive research – frequencies and correlations
  indicate if there is a relationship between the
  variables.
• Experimental research - statistics indicate if the hypothesis has
  been supported or if there is a meaningful difference between
  the groups. Inferential statistics are implemented.

Question 30

What is independent variable?

Answer 30

The variable the experimenter manipulates. E.g., type of video game

Question 31

What is a dependent variable?

Answer 31

The variable the experimenter measures.

Question 32

What are extraneous variables?

Answer 32

Variables that are influencing the performance separate from the independent variable.

Question 33

Experimental group vs control group:

Answer 33

Experimental group: receives some sort of
treatment
* Exposed to the variable of interest

Control group: a baseline, comparison
group
* Used to see how a
behaviour/characteristic would look
without manipulation

Question 34

Define Null and alternative hypothesis:

Answer 34

• Null hypothesis: In the underlying population, from which the sample was
  obtained, there is no difference between the number of school fights engaged
  in by the teenager who played violent video games compared to the teenager
  who did not play violent video games.
• Alternative hypothesis: In the underlying population, from which the sample
  was obtained, there is a significant difference between the number of school
  fights engaged in by the teenager who played violent video games compared to
  the teenager who did not play violent video games.

Question 35

What is something to avoid when experimenting?

Answer 35

Any form of bias

Question 36

How do we eliminate bias in research studies?

Answer 36

• To reduce sample bias: the two most important steps when
  designing a study or an experiment are (i) to avoid judgment or
  convenience sampling (ii) to ensure that the target population is
  properly defined and that the sample frame matches it as much as
  possible.
• Double blind procedure - neither the participant nor the researcher
  knows who is in which group. Would reduce participant and
  researcher bias.

Question 37

Experimental Analyses: Cause and Effect:

Answer 37

Descriptive statistics -
describe the data
* Mean - average of
all of the scores
* Standard deviation
- how much the
participants’ scores
vary from one
another

Question 38

What does ethics mean in research?

Answer 38

When you think about your research proposal topic, you
need to consider if your research study is ethically
correct.

e.g., Is a vulnerable population being tested? Could it cause
undue stress and harm to the participant? What is the
degree of deception? Is confidentiality of participant being
effected?

Question 39

Ethical guidelines to follow in research:

Answer 39

o Obtain informed consent—obtaining permission from the participant after they know
what the study involves and the risks and benefits of participating

o Protect participants from harm and discomfort-medical or physical risks; researchers must
avoid putting participants in situations that could cause undue stress

o Protect confidentiality: Researches must explain to participants, careful plans to protect
information about identities of participants and confidentiality of their research responses.

o Participation must be voluntary

o Do not use Deception or Incomplete Disclosure, only in exceptional circumstances

o Provide complete debriefing—revealing to participants any information that was withheld
during the study

Question 40

What is the Research Ethics Board (REB)?

Answer 40

To ensure that researchers follow proper ethical practices, research ethics boards
(REBs) provide oversight in academic and other research settings across the world.
Any institution (university, private corporation, government agency, or medical school)
conducting research involving human participants is expected to appoint an REB, which
consists of a mixture of researchers from inside and outside the field. REBs examine
research proposals and rule on the potential risks and benefits of each study’s
procedures (CIHR, NSERC, SSHRC, 2010).

Question 41

Ethical Research Guidelines Psychologists Follow- Animal Research:

Answer 41

• The Canadian Council on Animal Care oversees research
  involving animals as subjects

o Animals are used only if the research promises significant benefit to humans or
animals
o Animals are used if there is no other alternative

Question 42

What is informed consent?

Answer 42

The process of informing research participants of the nature of the
study and obtaining their explicit agreement to participate.

Question 43

How informed consent protects rights?

Answer 43

*Prevents researchers from violating people’s privacy by studying
them without their knowledge

*Gives prospective research participants enough information about
the nature of a study, including its potential risks, to make a
reasoned decision about whether they want to participate

Question 44

Examples of unethical research studies:

Answer 44

• Study Intervention for stuttering
• Bobo doll experiment
• Little Albert
• Stanford Prison Experiment

Question 45

1. Nine-year-old Bryson brought a troll doll with him to his last exam and he aced it. He forgot the troll doll the
   exam before that and he failed it. Based on this, Bryson predicts that he will do better on his next exam if he
   brings the troll doll with him. What type of reasoning is Bryson using?

a) deductive

b) inductive

c) hypothetico-deductive

d) It is impossible to determine from the information given.

Answer 45

Answer: B) Inductive

Question 46

Roger is having a discussion with his roommates about whether psychology is a science. His roommates are
calling psychology a ‘soft science’, and this is infuriating Roger, who is adamant that psychology is a science like
any other. What is Roger likely to say to make his point?

a) The focus of psychology is often not directly observable.

b) Applying the research in psychology often has moral implications.

c) Psychology uses the scientific method to gather information.

d) Determining cause and effect is more difficult in psychology because multiple factors contribute to a behaviour.

Answer 46

Answer: C) Psychology uses the scientific method to gather information.

Question 47

In using a scientific approach, what step would follow developing a hypothesis?

a) building a theory

b) testing the hypothesis

c) reporting the findings

d) making observations

Answer 47

Answer: B) testing the hypothesis

Question 48

Which of the following is an important advantage of the descriptive/correlational research method?

a) They reflect actual behaviour.

b) They allow close control over variables.

c) They explain cause and effect.

d) There is less of a concern of researcher and participant biases.

Answer 48

Answer: A) They reflect actual behaviour

Question 49

Martha administered a survey about child abuse to 2000 anonymous new parents and found no reports of a parent exhibiting this type
of behaviour. Knowing the number of incidences of child abuse reported each year, Martha suspected that some type of bias attributed to
the erroneous results. Which type of bias most likely affected this study?

a) researcher bias

b) participant bias

c) sampling bias

d) experimental bias

Answer 49

Answer: B) Participant bias

Question 50

If researchers were interested in studying individuals’ attitudes toward the treatment of persons with mental illness in Canada, which of
the following would they be MOST likely to use?

a) a case study

b) a survey

c) a naturalistic observation

d) an experiment

Answer 50

Answer: B) a survey

Question 51

Dr. Mallette is studying the effects of toy choices on aggressive behaviour in preschool children. To do this, she has
two groups of children that each have access to different types of toys. The Violent Group has access to violent toys
(guns, wrestling dolls, handcuffs), and the Non-Violent Group has access to non-violent toys (tea party set, colouring
books, toy trucks). For each group, she records the number of aggressive acts performed. What kind of research
method is Dr. Mallette using?

a) naturalistic observation

b) experiment

c) survey

d) case study

Answer 51

Answer: B) experiment

Question 52

Jennifer is a student researcher wants to study memory in children with autism. As Jennifer works part time in a
school for children with autism, she plans to ask the parents of the students if they will allow their children to
participate. What ethical guideline is Jennifer violating?

a)participation must be voluntary

b)protect participants from harm

c)informed consent

d)deception or incomplete disclosure

Answer 52

Answer: A) Participation must be voluntary

Question 53

Xian studied the impact of a new medication on reducing depressive symptoms in patients who had not
responded to other forms of treatment. All participants in Xian’s study were diagnosed with major depressive
disorder. Xian divided the participants into three groups, with each group taking a different drug and with no
participant aware of the specific drug they were taking. One group took a standard SSRI drug, one group took
a standard SNRI drug, and the third group took the new drug. Xian measured the depressive symptoms of the
participants over a six-month period. In this study, the type of drug participants took would be the
variable and number and severity of depressive symptoms would be the variable.

a) independent; dependent

b) independent; independent

c) dependent; independent

d) dependent; dependent