Chapter 3 -

Question 1

Main foreign policy aims

Answer 1

Broadly speaking, he sought to maintain positive relations with foreign powers to ensure:
• national security
• recognition of the Tudor dynasty . -
defence of English trading interests.

Question 2

Status of Brittany at this time

Answer 2

a fiefdom of the French Crown which had enjoyed effective independence.

Question 3

Problem with Brittany and Henry’s immediate reaction and action

Answer 3

Following an invasion in 1487 it looked as if the French would gain complete Control of Brittany. This alarmed Henry who, in 1489, summoned Parliament to grant him extraordinary revenue to raise an army against the French. There were two main reasons for this:
• his sense of obligation to the Bretons
. his fear that direct French control of Brittany could increase a potential
French threat to England.

Question 4

Events following Invasion of Brittany

Answer 4

-England and Brittany agreed the Treaty of Redon in February 1489, according to which the Duchess Anne would pay for a small English army to defend Brittany from the French threat. At the same time Henry tried to strengthen his position by an alliance with Maximilian, the Holy Roman Emperor-elect. A widower, Maximilian had contracted a marriage-by-proxy with Anne and had no desire, therefore, for the Duchy of Brittany to fall into French hands.

-The English army went to Brittany but Anne, fearing the futility of prolonged resistance to the French, surrendered and reluctantly married Charles VIII. This left the English army marooned in Brittany, and also meant that Maximilian lost interest in the matter, which left Henry in a difficult position. The situation was made worse for Henry by Perkin Warbeck seeking French backing for his claim to the English throne. In his first foreign adventure Henry had suffered an immediate setback.
However, Henry did recover his position very skilfully. He launched an invasion of France in 1492, rather late in the campaigning season, and the French quickly sought a peace settlement. Though Henry’s invasion might have appeared a gamble, he used information from his agents that Charles VIII was much more interested in launching an invasion of Italy and would therefore quickly seek a peace settlement with Henry. Henry showed enough flexibility in his approach to benefit from this change in French priorities.
At the signing of the Treaty of Etaples in November 1492, Charles VIII agreed to withdraw his support for Perkin Warbeck and to pay a pension to Henry to compensate him for the expense of having recruited an army of invasion.

Question 5

Effectiveness of Henry’s Brittany actions

Answer 5

Henry’s strategy had proved successful, and he had managed to defend national and dynastic interests. Moreover, he had improved his financial position and ensured a period of relative cordiality in Anglo-French relations

Question 6

Why was The Netherlands important to Henry?

Answer 6

The bulk of England’s exports went through the ports of the Netherlands, such as Antwerp and Bruges, which came under Burgundy’s jurisdiction.
It was therefore important for commercial reasons for good relations to be maintained.

Question 7

What was the problem with Burgundy?

Answer 7

The complicating factor was, however, the presence of Margaret, widowed Duchess of Burgundy in ownership of her late-husband’s estate.
She was the sister of Edward IV and Richard Ill, and the leading upholder of the Yorkist cause. Margaret also enlisted the support of her stepson-in-law, Maximilian, who became Holy Roman Emperor in 1493 and passed over jurisdiction in the Netherlands to his sixteen-year-old son Philip in the following year. Relations between England and Burgundy deteriorated as a result of the hospitality which Maximilian and Philip were offering to Perkin Warbeck, and Henry gambled that putting an embargo on English trade with Burgundy would ease the matter. The problem which this caused was that it brought two of Henry’s foreign policy objectives - securing the dynasty and encouraging trade - into conflict with each other.

Question 8

Trade events and outcomes with Burgundy

Answer 8

In giving priority to his dynastic interests, Henry showed himself prepared to sacrifice the commercial interests of London and east-coast merchants, which did nothing for his popularity in those parts of the country. Relations did improve to an extent after Warbeck left Burgundy, and Henry and Philip were able to agree the Intercursus Magnus in 1496 which brought the trade embargo to an end.
Anglo- Burgundian relations again became central to Henry’s foreign policy calculations in 1504 following the death of Isabella, Queen of Castile (see the map at the beginning of this chapter). One of the outcomes of the resulting Treaty of Windsor was a new trade agreement, the Intercursus Malus. In this, Henry showed the same forceful approach which by this time he was adopting in his domestic financial affairs: he demanded a trade deal which would have given a much stronger trading position to English merchants in the Netherlands had it ever been enforced (in the end, this trade deal was never put into practice). Another outcome was that Philip and Maximilian agreed to hand over their Yorkist fugitive, the Earl of Suffolk, whom Henry promptly imprisoned in the Tower. Henry appeared to have improved both England’s trading position and also the security of the dynasty.

Question 9

What was agreed in the Treaty of Medina del Campo?

Answer 9

It was an important development for Henry in that it gave him some of the international peace and security to which he aspired:
• the two monarchies offered mutual protection in the event of attack
•they agreed not to harbour rebels or pretenders
the treaty arranged a marriage alliance between Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Catherine, Princess of Aragon, the daughter of Ferdinand and
Isabella.

Question 10

What were problems with the implementation of the treaty of medina del campo?

Answer 10

• arrangements for the royal marriage did not go smoothly
• Ferdinand proved reluctant to allow the marriage to go ahead as long as
Henry’s dynastic stability remained threatened by Perkin Warbeck
• the two monarchs argued over the size of Catherine’s dowry.

Question 11

Outcome of TOMDC

Answer 11

The details of the marriage were finally agreed in 1499 and it took place in
1501. However; the death of Arthur in 1502 brought complications to Henry’s relations with Ferdinand:
• Henry immediately suggested that Catherine should marry his second son, Prince Henry, but Ferdinand was reluctant to agree. He had little need for an English alliance and the proposed marriage would require a papal dispensation - which could be arranged but at a price.
• In 1504, Henry lost his enthusiasm for the marriage, when the death of Isabella made Ferdinand a less significant political figure. During the resultant succession struggle in Spain between Ferdinand and Juana (Catherine of Aragon’s sister), Henry chose to support the latter.

Question 12

What happens to Philip and Juana in 1506?

Answer 12

• Juana and her husband Philip of Burgundy set sail for Spain in January 1506, but were forced to take refuge in England when their ship was wrecked at sea.

Question 13

How did Henry take advantage of Philip and Juana being stranded?

Answer 13

Henry was able to take advantage of his guests situation. By the Treaty of Windsor (1506) Henry secured a stronger relationship with Juana and Philip with:
• the Intercursus Malus (restoring trade relations between England and
Burgundy)
• the return of the Earl of Suffolk (further securing Henry’s dynasty)
• a proposed marriage alliance for himself with Philip’s sister, the Archduchess Margaret (aimed at strengthening Henry’s rule after the death of his wife Elizabeth, but this marriage never happened)
• Henry’s recognition of Juana and Philip as rulers of Castile (strengthening the couple’s claim to the Spanish throne).

Question 14

How did Philip’s death prove disastrous for Henry?

Answer 14

However, Philip of Burgundy’s death, soon after the couples arrival in Spain, proved disastrous for Henry:
• Juana, in her grief, was described by her father Ferdinand as having gone mad
• This gave Ferdinand the opportunity once more to become regent of Castile.
• This left Henry diplomatically isolated as once again he had been diplomatically outsmarted by a major European monarch.
. Ferdinand ensured that the marriage between Prince Henry and Catherine would not take place in Henry VIl’s lifetime (though they did marry once
Prince Henry had come to the throne as King Henry VIII).

Question 15

Anglo - Scottish relations 1485-95

Answer 15

Anglo-Scottish relations were often tense, though for the first few years of Henry’s reign relationships remained relatively cordial.

Question 16

AS relations 1495-96

Answer 16

Problems arose when King James IV came of age and in 1495 offered hospitality to Perkin Warbeck. Warbeck stayed for two years at the Scottish court, and received not only a pension from the king but also an aristocratic marriage - to the king’s cousin Lady Catherine Gordon.
This was already a potential threat to Henry but, to make matters worse, James encouraged Warbeck to cross the border in 1496 with an army.
The army was small, spent little time in England, received no support from the people of Northumberland and quickly retreated back over the border when word was received that an English force was making its way north from Newcastle. However, this attempt at an invasion led Henry to raise a larger army to launch an invasion of Scotland. This decision had important political repercussions because it prompted a taxation rebellion the following year.

Question 17

AS relations 1497 Cornish rebellion

Answer 17

A large-scale rebellion in Cornwall shook Henry. It was evident that it was in the interests of both England and Scotland to secure an immediate truce, which took place at Ayton, a few miles north of the English border stronghold of Berwick-upon-Tweed.

Question 18

AS relations 1498-1503

Answer 18

Anglo-Scottish relations significantly improved. Because of this improvement James no longer had any diplomatic use for Warbeck, who had become tiresome. Warbeck was executed in 1499.
It was agreed that James should marry Henry’s daughter, the Princess Margaret. In 1502 this was sanctioned by a formal peace treaty, the Treaty of Perpetual Peace, and the marriage took place in 1503. The improvement in relations with Scotland lasted until the end of Henry’s reign. In terms of Anglo-Scottish relations it is evident that Henry had been successful in ensuring the security of the dynasty.

Question 19

Situation in Ireland

Answer 19

Henry VIIs power in Ireland only extended as far as the ‘Pale, the area of land which surrounded Dublin. Power in the rest of Ireland lay with the descendants of the Anglo-Norman barons who had settled there in the twelfth century of whom the most important were the Fitzgeralds (or Geraldines) and the Butlers.
The dominant figure was the Earl of Kildare (the leader of the Geraldines), Lord Deputy of Ireland since 1477. He was feared by Henry because he had Yorkist sympathies.

Question 20

Kildare’s actions and Henry’s reactions

Answer 20

Henry’s suspicion was reinforced by Kildare’s support for Lambert Simnel, whom he crowned king of Ireland in
1486. He compounded his suspicion in Henry’s eyes by supporting Perkin
Warbeck in 1491. Kildares actions forced Henry into action:
. Instead ofrelying on the established Irish aristocracy, who were cheap Instead able, he attempted the more costly approach of rule of the Pale through an Englishman, backed by armed force.
• He appointed his infant son Prince Henry as Lieutenant of Ireland and appointed Sir Edward Poynings as his deputy.

Question 21

Effectiveness of Poynings

Answer 21

Povnings was initially successful in establishing royal authority by means of th.
Threat of force and the use of bribery. He reinforced this success by requiring the Irish parliament to pass Poynings’ Law’ in 1495, which laid down that the Irish parliament could pass no law without the prior approval of the English Crown. He also attempted to implement English law in Ireland.
This strategy proved too expensive for Henry’s liking, and the financial problems were made worse when Warbeck returned to Ireland in 1495 and amassed a force which besieged the town of Waterford. Henry, who was short of money because of the threat of invasion by the Scots, was forced to recall Poynings and once again had to depend on the cheap option of using Kildare as his deputy.

Question 22

Outcome of Henry choosing to rely on Kildare as deputy

Answer 22

By this stage in 1496 Kildare had decided that there was no benefit in supporting the Yorkist cause any longer and decided to serve Henry loyally, in the process securing the submission of the various Irish chieftains. By around 1500 Henry had eventually secured some level of peaceable - and cheap - authority over Ireland, though he was undoubtedly fortunate in that Kildare eventually proved so amenable. The fact that Kildare was able to use his office to rebuild his family’s fortunes doubtless made him eager to support his former enemy.

Question 23

Urgency of securing the succession, why did it become more insecure

Answer 23

Henry VII had four children that survived childhood: Arthur, Henry, Margaret and Mary. In 1503, one year after Arthur died, Henry’s wife Elizabeth of York died shortly after giving birth to their seventh child, Katherine, who also died.
Arthur’s unexpected death in April 1502 increased the insecurity of the dynasty. The heir to the throne was now the young Prince Henry, which raised the issue of what might happen if the king himself were to die while Henry was still a child. The precedent of Edward V was not encouraging. Moreover, the issue was complicated by the fact that once again the Yorkist claimant the Earl of Suffolk seemed to be gaining influence.

Prince Arthur died in April 1502.

The dynasty thus depended on Henry VII’s survival until his son was old enough to rule, and his deteriorating health was a continuous cause of concern to many of his key advisers. Henry also recognised the need to dispose of the threat from the Earl of Suffolk. In this he was lucky in that Juana and Philip of Burgundy were forced to take refuge in England in 1506 as it gave him the opportunity to press Philip of Burgundy and his father Maximilian to hand Suffolk over to him. Nevertheless, there was still uncertainty amongst Henry’s key followers and much jockeying for position.

Question 24

Split grab for power near end of Henry’s reign

Answer 24

between those officials who were particularly associated with the Council Learned, especially Sir Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley, and some of Henry’s other advisers, especially Bishop Fox and Sir Thomas Lovell, who were looking to position themselves effectively once Henry’s health finally failed. There were still fears about Suffolk and his brother Richard de la Pole, and there were also fears that the Duke of Buckingham, a descendant of Edward III, might launch an attempt at seizing the throne.

Question 25

Henry’s death and immediate consequences

Answer 25

Henry’s health deteriorated rapidly from February 1509 and he died on the evening of 21 April. No announcement was made at first of the king’s death. Instead, Bishop Fox and his trusted friend within the Privy Chamber, Richard Weston, aided and abetted by Lady Margaret Beaufort, sought to manipulate the terms of the succession to their advantage and to position themselves around the new king. Most importantly, Empson and Dudley were excluded from their deliberations. The king’s death was announced on 23 April, and on the following day the process of rounding up potential troublemakers began. Among those arrested were Empson and Dudley.
There was a clear message, therefore, that the new regime would be different from the old.

Question 26

Spanish marriage alliance

Answer 26

He planned to maintain an alliance with Spain by securing a marriage allance between COA and his eldest son and heir Arthur. Although his plans were dashed when Arthur suddenly died, Henry VIl quickly sought anither marriage between Catherine and his Younger son, Prince Henry instead.

Question 27

Scottish marriage alliance

Answer 27

He Arranged for his oldest daughter, Margaret, to be married to James IV of Scotland, which strengthened alliances with Scotland during his reign and weakened Perkin Warbeck’s threat to the Tudor throne.

Question 28

French marriage alliance

Answer 28

Henrys younger daughter Mary would later, during Henry VIl’s reign, marry the much older King of France, Louis XII, in order to secure peaceful relations between the two countries.

Question 29

Potential but unfulfilled marriage alliances

Answer 29

Henry VII tried also, albeit unsuccessfully, to re-enter the marriage market after the death of his wife, Elizabeth. Possible alliances with Castile, Aragon, France and the Holy Roman Empire were considered, but came to nothing partly because the princesses concerned proved reluctant to marry Henry and partly because Henry himself gradually lost enthusiasm for the prospect of remarriage.

Question 30

Importance of marriage alliances for Henry

Answer 30

Marriage alliances were an essential part of international diplomacy during this period. All monarchs sought marriage alliances in order to enhance their power and influence. In addition, it was important for Henry VII to seek appropriate marriage alliances in order to help bring about dynastic security.

Question 31

FP weakness

Answer 31

Royal marriage proposals were a normal part of diplomatic activity as monarchs attempted to use their family members as pawns in the game of diplomatic chess. It was a game in which Henry had mixed fortunes. As Christine Carpenter has pointed out, the death of Henry VIIs own queen, Elizabeth, in 1503, after the loss of his first son Arthur, made Henry’s dynastic security appear significantly weakened. it should not, be thought that his foreign policy was consistently successful. Henry, more than most monarchs, was aware of the influence that luck could play in diplomatic affairs. In that context, Henry was wrong-footed by the death of Isabella of Castile in 1504 and for a time he found himself dangerously isolated.

Question 32

Successful at securing the dynasty?

Answer 32

At this he was largely successful. Having initially secured his dynasty, he became more ambitious and broadly successful in his foreign policy, in the main avoiding expensive foreign wars.

On the whole, he responded skilfully to the changing circumstances in which he found himself.

Question 33

Why was England rather diplomatically isolated at the end of Henrys reign?

Answer 33

League of Cambrai, formed Dec. 10, 1508, an alliance of Pope Julius II, the Holy Roman emperor Maximilian I, Louis XII of France, and Ferdinand II of Aragon.