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Human Physiology > The Gastronintestinal System (GIT) Etc Lectures 8.1-11.1 > Flashcards

The Gastronintestinal System (GIT) Etc Lectures 8.1-11.1 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two parts of the gastrointestinal tract?

A

Gastrointestinal Tract- a continious tube from mouth to anus consisting of:
*mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and the anus

Accessory digestive organs:
*salivary glands, exocrine pancreas and biliary system (liver and gallbladder)

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2
Q

What is the primary function of a GIT tract?

A

Transfer nutrients, water + electrolytes from ingested food into the body’s internal environment

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3
Q

What are the six digestive processes?

A

-ingestion
-propulsion
-mechanical digestion
-chemical digestion
-absorption
-defecation

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4
Q

What are the 4 major tissue layers?

A

-mucosa
-submucosa
-muscularis externa
-serosa

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5
Q

What is the function of the mucosa?

A

-inner epithelial layer
*protects and transports substances

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6
Q

What is the function of the submucosa?

A

-connective tissue
*supports and contains nerve plexus

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7
Q

What is the function of the muscularis externa?

A

-contraction
*inner circular smooth muscle
*outer longitudinal muscle layer

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8
Q

What is the function of the serosa?

A

-connective tissue
*protects the tissue

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9
Q

Swallowing/ deglutition

A

-transportation of food from mouth —> stomach
-involves voluntary and involuntary control
-divided into oral, pharyngeal + oesophageal phases
-controlled in the brainstem (unconscious part of the brain)

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10
Q

What does swallowing involve that moves food along the GIT?

A

A series of wave-like contractions (peristalsis)
-begins in the oesophagus when a bonus of food is swallowed

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11
Q

What is the functional anatomy of the stomach divided into?

A

-divided into 3 sections;
*fundus, body and antrum

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12
Q

What is the rugae of mucosa?
Rugae = folds in stomach lining

A

-allows the stomach to expand and stretch to accommodate food- receptive relaxation
*empty volume= 50mL
*full volume= 1000-4000mL

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13
Q

What are the 3 main functions of the stomach?

A

-stores food until it can be emptied into the small intestine
-secretes HCl + enzymes that begin protein digestion
-mixing movements -> converts pulverised food to chyme

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14
Q

What does the pyloric sphincter (valve) serve as?

A

-serves as a barrier between the stomach and small intestine

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15
Q

HCl secretion in a parietal cell;
Explain the cephalic (head) phase:

A

-secretion of HCl + pepsin before food reaches the stomach
-gastrin is released from G-cells in pyloric gland area + increases HCl and pepsin

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16
Q

HCl secretion in a parietal cell;
Explain the gastric phase:

A

-begins when food reaches the stomach
-presence of protein increases HCl and pepsin secretion

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17
Q

HCl secretion in a parietal cell;
Explain the intestinal phase:

A

-inhibitory phase: inhibits gastric juices as chyme begins to empty into the small intestine

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18
Q

What is the function of the gastric mucosal barrier?

A

-enables the stomach to contain acid without injuring itself
*luminal membranes; impermeable to H+ so HCl cannot penetrate cells
*cells are joined by tight junctions= preventing penetration of HCl
*muscles coating over the gastric mucosa= offers further protection

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19
Q

Gastric emptying- peristaltic waves in the stomach
Where do they occur?

A

*peristaltic waves in stomach= occur 3/min

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20
Q

Gastric emptying- peristaltic waves in the stomach
What type of rhythm? What is it set by and where is it located?

A

-contractile rhythm
-set by pacemaker cells
-located in the longitudinal smooth muscle = interstitial cells of cajal

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21
Q

Neutral and hormonal factors inhibit gastric emptying
What is gastric emptying time?

A

The time to empty the stomach after a meal
*Increases fluidity - time decreases
*Increases fat content- increases time it takes

The time occurs at a rate that the duodenum can cope with e.g. fatty meal can take 4-6 hours

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22
Q

What do fats in the duodenum allow?

A

Stimulates cells lining the duodenum to secret CCK (cholecystokinin) that in turn stimulates the gallbladder to contract and release stored bile that helps to break down fats

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23
Q

What does stomach acid in the duodenum stimulate?

A

Stimulates cells lining the duodenum to release secretin that in turn stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate ions to neutralise the acid

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24
Q

The small intestine;
What is its function?

A

absorption by increasing surface area

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25
Q

Structures of the small intestine:

A

-circular folds
-villi= ‘finger like’ projections
-microvilli= projections of plasma membrane
-finger-like shape
-crypt: different types of cells; intestinal stem = constantly regenerate the epithelial layer
-epithelial layer is always regenerated= new layer is always been formed

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26
Q

What is hydrolysis?

A

Hydrolysis is a reaction involving the breaking of a bond in a molecule using water

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27
Q

How does glucose exit the intestinal cell?

A

passively by a glucose transport protein

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28
Q

What is the dietary protein absorption and peptide uptake?

A

-proteins are digested into AAS and di/tri-peptides
-peptide uptake= generally more rapid than free AA uptake
-humans use Na+ to drive secondary active transport into the intestine

Example= peptide transporters
-basolateral membrane of the electrolyte
^contains additional AA transporters -> export amino acids from the cell into the blood

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29
Q

What are dietary lipids?

A

-triglycerides (90%)
= composed of 3 fatty acids; joined to a glycerol back bone
-cholesterol
-phospholipids
-fat soluble vitamins

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30
Q

What are bile salts: bio-surfactants?

A

-important role in digestion and absorption
-they are amphipiles= containing hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

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31
Q

What is the key role of bile salts; bio surfactants?

A

-Prepare the surface of fat globules
-act as detergents

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32
Q

Triglyceride (TG) hydrolysis:

A

-hydrolysed to monoglycerides (MGs) + free fatty acids (FAs) by pancreatic lipase
-rate of hydrolysis is strongly dependant on surface area of the lipid-water interface

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33
Q

What does monoglycerides and free fatty acids associate with?

A

Bile salts and phospholipids to form micelles

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34
Q

Transcellular lipid movement;
Where are intracellular fatty acids and MGs transported to?

A

transported to ER for synthesis into TGs

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35
Q

Once intracellular FAs and MGs are transported what are they packaged into and where are they transported?

A

Packaged into chylomicrons and transported to basal membrane in exocytotic membranes = extruded

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36
Q

Motility in the small intestine;
What is segmention initiated by?

A

Initiated by pacemaker cells in the small intestine= produces basic electrical rhythm (BER)

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37
Q

Motility in the small intestine;
What is the circular smooth muscle responsiveness influenced by?

A

Influenced by distension of intestine, gastrin + extrinsic nerve activity

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38
Q

What are the functions of the circular smooth muscle?

A

-Mixing chyme with digestive juices secreted into small intestine lumen
-Exposing all chyme to absorptive surfaces of small intestine mucosa

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39
Q

Motility in the small intestine;
What does migrating motility complex do?

A

Sweeps intestines clean between meals

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40
Q

What are the features of the large intestine?

A

-drying and storage organ
-contents consist of indigestible food, residues, unabsorbed biliary components and water

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41
Q

What is the function of the colon?

A

Extracts more water and salt from contents and the feces remains to be eliminated

42
Q

What is the function of the taenia coil?

A

Longitudinal smooth muscle bands in the colon wall
Facilitates efficient contraction of the circular muscle

43
Q

What is the function of the haustra?

A

Ponches or sacs + actively changes location as a result of contraction of circular smooth muscle layer

44
Q

What are haustral contractions initiated by?

A

Initiated by autonomous rhythmicity of colonic smooth muscle cells

45
Q

Defection reflex;
What is mass movements?

A

Massive contractions move colonic contents into distal part of the large intestine

46
Q

Defection reflex;
Function of the gastrocolic reflex?

A

-Mediated from stomach to colon by gastrin and autonomic nerves
-usually seen after first meal of the day

47
Q

What is the defecation reflex?

A

Initiated when stretch receptors in rectal wall are stimulated by distension
Causes internal anal sphincter= relax and return + sigmoid colon to contract more vigorously

48
Q

When does defecation reflex occur?

A

If the external anal sphincter is relaxed

49
Q

Skeletal muscle;
What are the functions?

A

-produce movement
-maintain posture and body position
-stabilise joints
-generate heat

50
Q

Skeletal muscle;
What are the characteristics of the skeletal muscle?

A

-excitability
-contractibility
-extensibility
-elasticity

51
Q

How long is a skeletal muscle?

A

30cm long

52
Q

What is the smallest function unit of skeletal muscle?

A

Sarcomere

53
Q

What is the arrangement of the thick and thin filaments and what appearance does it give?

A

Arrangement of actin and myosin gives skeletal muscle its microscopic striated appearance and creates functional units = sarcomeres

54
Q

How are sarcomeres viewed under electron microscopy?

A

Sarcomeres are arranged longitudinally and include the: M line, Z line, H band, A band and I band

55
Q

What is the M line?

A

Central-most line of the sarcomeres where myosin filaments are anchored together through binding sites within the myosin filament

56
Q

What is the H band?

A

The H band contains the M line and is the central region of the sarcomere that contains only myosin filaments

57
Q

What is the I band?

A

The I band covers the terminal regions of two adjacent sarcomeres and contains only actin filaments
-shortens with muscle contraction

58
Q

What is the A band?

A

The A band is a larger portion of the sarcomere that *contains the entirety of the myosin fibres and includes regions of actin and myosin overlap. *It does NOT shorten with contraction

59
Q

What is the Z disc?

A

-start and end point of the sarcomere
-coin shaped; cutting through the cell
*alpha actin
*anchors the actin thin filaments

60
Q

In the sliding filament theory what is the look of actin and myosin?

A

Actin: thin
Myosin: thick
Each actin: reacting with 3 myosin’s
Each myosin: reacting with 6 actin

61
Q

Function of the Z disc in the sliding filament theory?

A

-Z discs coming closer together
-shortening
-myosin motors are pulling towards each other= contraction
-shape changes = thick and thin filaments slide part each other= increases the area of overlap

62
Q

What is the myosin cross-bridge?

A

-each head has 2 binding sites; one for actin and one for ATP molecule
-hydrolysis of ATP is related to generation of force e.g. myosin head undergoes ‘shape’ change

63
Q

What are the two shapes/ conformations of the myosin cross bridge?

A

*in the low energy; conformation the cross bridge (head) is tilted BACKWARDS
*in the high energy; conformation the cross bridge (head) is tilted UPWARDS

When the cross bridge ‘shape’ changes, thin filament is approx 10nm = power stroke of muscle contraction

64
Q

Myosin

A

-each myosin head cycles approx 5x per second
-100-110 angstroms per cycle
-when hundreds of heads are interacting with the same actin filament= myosin MAY MOVE at 80,000 angstroms per second relative to actin

65
Q

Titin

A

-34,350 amino acids
-largest human protein
-a molecular spring and scaffold protein= aiding myofibrillar assembly

66
Q

Cross bridge cycle

A

Page 18 lecture 10.1

67
Q

What is the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

A

-a system of membranous tubules surrounding each myofibril
-function= release and sequester Ca2+

68
Q

What is the function of T tubules?

A

-invaginations of the sarcolemma that run between the terminal cisternae of the SR
Function= allow the electrical stimulus to be delivered quickly to deep cell regions

69
Q

Excitation contraction coupling;
How long does it take?

A

Active transport of calcium back into the SR TAKES TIME
^although the AP is very brief, the contraction phase of the muscle fibre lasts MUCH LONGER

70
Q

Excitation contraction coupling;
What does the release of Ca2+ from SR provide?

A

Provides link between muscle excitation and contraction

71
Q

Summary;

A

skeletal muscle is voluntary and must be stimulated by a motor neuron to contract
-skeletal muscle fibres are; *long, *striated and *multinucleate
-myofibrils are the contractile elements and consist of the regular arrangement of actin and myosin = how the skeletal muscle gets its striated appearance
-SR is a system of membranous tubules and functions to release and sequester calcium ions
-sliding filament model describes how the cross bridge (myosin head) activity of the thick filaments pulls the thin filaments towards the sacromere centre
-regulation of skeletal muscle contraction involves generating and transmitting an AP along the sarcolemma an excitation contraction coupling

72
Q

Skeletal muscle;
Muscle contraction
What does a motor unit consist of?

A

Consists of a motor neuron and all the muscle fibres it innervates

73
Q

Skeletal muscle;
Muscle contraction
How do motor units vary in the number of muscle fibres?

A

-finger muscles; 10-100 muscle fibres=allowing fine adjustments of movement
-leg muscles; up to 1000 muscles= allowing larger adjustments in force

74
Q

Skeletal muscle;
Muscle contraction
What is a skeletal muscle fibre innervated by?

A

By a branch of a motor axon
-the AP arrives at the synapse (NMJ) and an AP is then generated in the muscle fibre membrane which causes contraction of the muscle fibre

75
Q

Skeletal muscle;
Muscle contraction
What 3 phases does a muscle twitch have?

A

Latent period
Period of contraction
Period of relaxation

76
Q

Explain the latent period:

A

-1-3 ms following stimulation when E-C coupling is occurring
-cross bridges are being formed but tension is not yet detectable

77
Q

Explain the period of contraction;

A

-cross bridges are active up to the peak of tension development
-myogram trace rises to a peak
-lasts 10-100 ms

78
Q

Explain the period of relaxation:

A

-initiated by re-entry of Ca2+ into SR
-muscle tension decreases to zero
-if muscle has shortened during contraction= returns to its original length
-lasts 10-100ms

79
Q

What are graded muscle responses?

A

-Healthy muscle contractions are relatively smooth and vary in strength as different demands are placed on them
-variations are necessary for proper control of skeletal muscle= referred to as graded muscle responses

80
Q

What does the size of muscle contraction depend on?

A

Number of motor units activated= achieved by changing the strength of the stimulus
Frequency of stimulation= increasing frequency of stimulation allows the contractions to be added together

81
Q

What are the effects of stimulus intensity?

A

-sub threshold stimulus= no discernible contraction
-above threshold= increases stimulus strength= increases contractile strength
-illustrates an increase in motor unit recrutionent?

82
Q

What is the size principle regarding motor units?

A

-small motor units= recruited first as they are controlled by smallest most excitable motor neurons
-recruitment of large motor neurons = increases the contractile force
-largest motor units= 50x more contractile force than smaller ones
^controlled by the largest least excitable neuron and are activated only when powerful contraction is necessary

83
Q

What is the effect of frequency of stimulation?

A

Muscle force sums to higher levels when APs stimulate the muscle at higher rates —> reaching a tetanus

84
Q

What is tetanic contraction?

A

It is the result of repeated stimuli at such short intervals that the muscle fibre doesn’t have time to fully relax before it is needed to contract again

85
Q

Why is size principle important?

A

-It increases the force of weak contraction to occur in small steps
-muscle force can be progressively greater when large amounts of force are required
-motor units are commonly activated asynchronously
*at a given instant some are in tetanus = prolongs a strong contraction by preventing/delaying fatigue

86
Q

What is isotonic?

A

Same tension, change in length

87
Q

What is concentric?

A

Muscle shortens as it does work

88
Q

What is eccentric?

A

Muscle lengthens while contracting
*50% more forceful than concentric contractions
*causes delayed onset muscle soreness
*all jumping and throwing activities involved both types of contraction

89
Q

What is isometric?

A

Same length, increasing tension

90
Q

Explain the interactions of skeletal muscles:

A

As muscles shorten, the insertion (attachment on the moveable bone) moves towards the origin (its fixed immovable point of attachment
Whatever one muscle group ‘does’ there is another group that ‘undoes’ that action

91
Q

What is the classification of muscles?

A

4 groups:
1. Agonists= prime movers
2. Antagonists= e.g. triceps in elbow flexion
-when man agonist is active, the antagonist is relaxed/stretched
-can regulate degree of movement by contracting eccentrically
-pairs are always located on the opposite side of joints
3. Synergists= assist the agonist= add extra force
4. Fixators= reduces the undesirable movements when the synergist immobilises a bone or joint, they are fixators

92
Q

What are fast twitch and slow twitch glycolytic fibres?

A

*fast-twitch glycolytic fibres are LIGHT YELLOW
-fewer mitochondria
-rely on glycolysis
*slow-twitch oxidative fibres are DARK RED
-rich in myoglobin
-rich blood supply= lots of mitochondria

93
Q

Metabolic characteristics

A

Page 20- lecture 11.1

94
Q

What are the differences between slow oxidative fibres and fast glycolytic fibres?

A

Slow oxidative fibres;
-depends on oxygen delivery
-thin cell- allows more rapid diffusion of oxygen and nutrients from the blood
-fewer myofibrils- less powerful
-many mitochondria
-rich in myoglobin
-rich in capillary supply

Fast glycolytic fibres;
-depend on glycogen reserves rather than glucose delivered through the blood
-reduced demand for oxygen
-few mitochondria
-low capillary density
-larger cell- more

95
Q

Differences between all 3 types?

A

Type I= slow oxidative
Type IIA= fast oxidative
Type IIB= fast glycolytic

Men vs Women;
Men- average= faster than women when it comes to sprinting and marathoning
-as endurance races get longer, the gap between the women’s and men’s finishing time shrinks

96
Q

Individual differences?

A

-everyone’s muscles contain all 3 types
-some have more of one type than others
-differences are predominantly genetic
-can be modified by training

97
Q

Oestrogen in a skeletal muscle

A

In a skeletal muscle oestrogen increases the expression and protein content of peroxisome proliferation activator receptors
-skeletal muscles of women have higher intracellular lipid content than male muscles

98
Q

Do men or women have more slow twitch fibres with better blood supply?

A

-women have a higher percentage of slow twitch oxidative muscle fibres than men
-estrogen receptors are expressed in type I muscle fibres
-higher capillary density of muscle fibres increases substrate availability

99
Q

Force-velocity relationship of muscle?

A

? Page 21- lecture 11.1

100
Q

Summary of motor units;

A

-Motor unit consists of a motor neuron and the muscle fibres it innervates
-muscle twitch’s have 3 phases: latent, contraction + relaxation phases
-size of muscle contraction depends on: number of activated motor units
-increased by:
*changing the strength of the stimulus
*increases the frequency of stimulation so contractions are added together= force summation

101
Q

Agonist and agonistic muscle pairs:

A

-agonist and agonistic muscle pairs move joints?
-page 21

Human Physiology (9 decks)

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