Paper 2: Approaches of Psychology

Question 1

What are the 5 main psychological approaches?

Answer 1

Learning approaches (behaviourism and social learning theory): Behaviour is learned from experience
The cognitive approach: Behaviour is a result of thoughts and cognitive processes
The biological approach: Behaviour is a result of biological processes
The psychodynamic approach: Behaviour is a result of unconscious processes and unconscious conflicts
Humanistic psychology: Behaviour is influenced by all these things, but each person ultimately has free will to decide their actions

Question 2

Who was the first psychologist and how did he conduct his introspection?

Answer 2

Wundt. Introspection involves looking inwards and examining ones own emotions and state. can involve looking in a mirror with a metronome and prompts. Must meticulously write everything and make sure the process is exact.

Question 3

AO3 evaluation of Wundt’s research.

Answer 3

Strengths: tried to apply scientific rigour to the proceedings. Strictly controlled the environment to prevent any extraneous variables. Had great influence on the study of cognitive psychology.
Weaknesses: Research is subjective and ultimately unscientific. Unable to replicate findings.

Question 4

What are the two genres of the learning approach?

Answer 4

Behaviourism and Social Learning Theory.

Question 5

What are the basic assumptions of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 5

Everyone is born as a blank slate and it is through experience that behaviour is learnt.
The study of the mind should be based on external behaviour.
Humans and animals have the same behaviourist structure.

Question 6

Who was the first behaviourist and what was his experiment?

Answer 6

Pavlov 1927. Found dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the ringing of a bell, making the bell a conditioned stimulus associated with the food.

Question 7

What did Skinner look at?

Answer 7

Operant conditioning, the idea there are positive, negative and punishments to reinforce behaviour.

Question 8

How did Skinner test his theory?

Answer 8

Skinner tested both positive and negative reinforcement using rats and pigeons. He would either reward the animal with food once they had completed an action or remove a negative thing (stop the electrified floor).

Question 9

Strengths of behaviourism?

Answer 9

Scientific, focuses on what’s credible and repeatable.
Has practical application in the treatment of phobias such as flooding and systematic desensitisation.

Question 10

Weaknesses of behaviourism?

Answer 10

Ignores the internal mind: By focusing only on environmental inputs (stimulus) and behavioural outputs (responses), behaviourism neglects the mental events in the middle such as thoughts, reflections, and emotions. This makes it difficult for behaviourism to explain behaviours such as memory.
Animal studies aren’t as valid as human studies.
Ethical concerns for animals that may have been in distress in Skinner’s studies.

Question 11

What is the Social Learning Approach?

Answer 11

We not only learnt through the reward and punishment of our own behaviour but the imitation of other peoples behaviour.
People imitate the role models they have.
Allows for some cognitive elements.

Question 12

What research supported the SLT theory?

Answer 12

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study. Subjects were 36 boys and 36 girls aged between 3 and 6 years old
They were each put into a room with an inflatable doll (Bobo) and observed an adult role model interact with the doll for 10 minutes
The subjects were separated into groups as follows:
Aggressive: Role model hits the doll with a hammer and shouts abuse at it
Non-aggressive: Role model does not hit the doll or shout at it
Control: No role model
Half of the subjects had a role model of the same gender, while the other half had a role model of the opposite gender
After observing the role model for 10 minutes, the participants were taken to a room with toys but told they couldn’t play with them (the aim of this was to increase aggression)
After 2 minutes, the participants were taken to a room with lots of different toys (including a Bobo doll) and left to play with them for 20 minutes

Question 13

What were the results of this study?

Answer 13

Children who had observed an aggressive role model previously acted more aggressively than children who had observed a non-aggressive role model
Boys acted more aggressively than girls in general
The child was more likely to imitate the behaviour of the role model if the role model was the same gender as them

Question 14

What’s vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 14

Person is more likely to imitate behaviour if they see it rewarded. More likely to not imitate if they see it punished.

Question 15

What the cognitive side of Social Learning Theory?

Answer 15

The mediating process, as described by Bandura in 1977.

Question 16

What are the 4 factors of SLT.

Answer 16

Attention, retention, reproduction and motivation.

Question 17

Strengths of Social Learning Theory?

Answer 17

Offers a more complete account than behaviourism. Uses the ideas of the internal process.
Can be used to explain cultural differences.

Question 18

Weaknesses of SLT?

Answer 18

The research accidentally demonstrated a biological factor. Showed boys were more aggressive than girls.
Had questions of ecological/external validity, conducted in an unfamiliar environment.

Question 19

Basic assumptions of the cognitive approach?

Answer 19

Inner mental processes should be studied in a scientific way.
Although inner mental processes can’t be observed they can be inferred.
Mental processes can be modelled as a computer processes.

Question 20

What’s a schema?

Answer 20

It’s a cognitive framework/mental shortcuts to organise and understand the world.
Schema have the ability to be changed over time

Question 21

What are some types of schema?

Answer 21

Self-schema: I’m tall
Stereotypes: Dark alleyways are dangerous
Social roles: Police catch criminals
Motor schema: how to walk

Question 22

What’s an example of the mind working as a computer model?

Answer 22

Input- auditory teacher asking a question
Processing- Processing the question and mentally recalling an answer
Output- Speaking to give an answer

Question 23

What’s an example of a theoretical model?

Answer 23

The multi-store model.

Question 24

How is cognitive neuroscience studied?

Answer 24

Done through brain scans such as fMRIs and PET scans. Able to identify correlations.

Question 25

Strengths of cognitive approach?

Answer 25

Acknowledges mental processes: It is obvious that mental processes (thoughts, reflections, emotions, etc.) are important in determining behaviour. The cognitive approach recognises the importance of these mental processes and studies them (unlike e.g. behaviourism).
Scientific: Although mental processes cannot directly be observed, the cognitive approach uses rigorous experimental methods based on observable data to infer details of them.
Practical applications: Therapies based on the cognitive approach (e.g. cognitive behavioural therapy) have been shown to produce positive results. For example, many studies have shown CBT to improve symptoms of depression.

Question 26

Weaknesses of cognitive approach?

Answer 26

Overly reductive: The cognitive approach’s analogy between the mind and a computer has its limitations. Although there are similarities between the two types of processing, there are important differences. For example, human emotions (which computers lack) have a significant effect on processing, which is not accounted for in a purely information-processing model. An example of this in action is the effect anxiety has on eyewitness testimony.
Questions of ecological/external validity: Theories based on the cognitive approach (e.g. the working memory model) are often based on laboratory studies, but these results might not translate to real-life. For example, Baddeley’s (1996) test of the capacity of the central executive is an unusual task that one wouldn’t normally perform in real-life.

Question 27

Basic assumptions of the biological approach?

Answer 27

A full understanding of human behaviour will look at the underlying biological processes that cause it. Psychological processes are, at first, biological processes.
These biological processes include:
Genetics: i.e. biological traits inherited from parents.
Biological structures: the physical systems that make up the mind and body (in particular the nervous system).
Neurochemistry: i.e. chemicals such as hormones and neurotransmitters.
The mind is the brain (unlike e.g. the cognitive approach which treats the mind as something separate to the brain).

Question 28

Difference between a genotype and phenotype

Answer 28

Genotype: Your actual genes. These are decided at conception and consist of around 100,000 genes that cannot be changed.
E.g. eye colour or hair colour. Obviously you can dye your hair, but your hair still grows back the same colour that is determined by your genotype. Similarly, you might be born with the SLC1A1 gene, which is linked to OCD.
Phenotype: How your genes present in response to the environment. Even though your genotype itself can’t change, the way it’s expressed can vary.
E.g. height has a strong genetic component, but a person with tall genes could end up short if they grow up in a malnourished environment. Similarly, a person with a genetic tendency towards OCD could use psychotherapy to overcome these genes and not exhibit OCD behaviours.

Question 29

What can twin studies help discover?

Answer 29

The concordance rate is the rate at which twins share the same trait. If the concordance rate for a psychological disorder is higher among identical twins (monozygotic twins) than non-identical twins (dizygotic twins), this suggests a genetic component to the disorder.

The reason for this is that the identical twins have 100% identical genetics whereas non-identical twins only share 50% of their genes. So, if a disorder is entirely determined by genetics, then identical twins would both develop the disorder because they share identical genes. However, because non-identical twins only share 50% of their genes, there is a chance that only one of them will inherit the genetics for the disorder but not the other.

Question 30

What study supported the belief of evolved characteristics?

Answer 30

Another example of evolved psychological traits could be Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment. Bowlby argued that babies evolved to develop an attachment to one person – usually its mother. This behaviour makes the baby more likely to survive and pass on its genes because a baby that does not develop an attachment will be left to fend for itself in a dangerous environment and probably die before it gets the chance to procreate.

Question 31

Strengths of the biological approach?

Answer 31

Supporting evidence: The fact that concordance rates for behaviours and psychological disorders are often higher among monozygotic twins than dizygotic twins (e.g. Gottesman (1991) for schizophrenia, Holland et al (1988) for anorexia, and Verhulst et al (2015) for alcoholism) supports biological (genetic) explanations of behaviour.
Scientific: The biological approach focuses on observable and measurable phenomena such as hormone levels, brain structures, and genes. These biological phenomena are often measured using sophisticated technology (e.g. fMRI scanners) and tested using rigorous scientific methods (e.g. randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trials of drugs).
Practical applications: Biological approaches have proven highly successful in treating mental disorders. For example, we saw in the psychopathology topic how drugs such as SSRIs are highly effective for treating OCD. Similarly, drug therapy is successfully used to treat depression, anxiety, and other psychological conditions. Further, tools to better understand and measure biological structures (e.g. fMRI scanning) yield new explanations and ways of treating psychological disorders.

Question 32

Weaknesses of the biological approach?

Answer 32

Conflicting evidence: Despite high concordance rates for certain behaviours and psychological disorders among identical twins (see supporting evidence above), these concordance rates are much lower than 100%. This suggests there are other factors besides genetics needed to fully explain behaviour.
Overly reductive: The biological approach can be said to be overly reductive in that it ignores other factors, such as environment. For example, a person with the same genes is likely to behave differently if raised by a different family or in a different culture. This shows that genetics can only go so far in explaining human behaviour.
Deterministic: The biological approach explains behaviour as a result of biological factors outside our control, such as genetics and biological structures. This leaves no room for free will, which makes it difficult to hold people responsible for their actions as those actions are just a consequence of biology rather than being freely chosen by the individual. This raises both moral and legal issues: How is it fair to send someone to prison, for example, for something they didn’t choose to do?

Question 33

What are the basic assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 33

The mind consists of 3 parts, the conscious mind, the pre-conscious mind and the unconscious mind.
Behaviour is explained as conflicts of the mind caused in childhood.
Early childhood experiences shape us.

Question 34

What are some example of the unconscious mind?

Answer 34

Freudian slips.

Question 35

Describe the purpose of the Id, ego and superego.

Answer 35

Id: The primitive, biological, part of personality. It is present from birth and operates on the pleasure principle, demanding gratification of its needs.
Ego: The part of personality that mediates between the id and the superego. It develops around 1-3 years old and operates on the reality principle.
Superego: The moral ‘higher values’ part of personality. It develops around 3-5 years old and operates on the morality principle, punishing the ego through guilt.

Question 36

What are the 3 defence mechanisms?

Answer 36

Repression, denial, displacement

Question 37

What are the 5 psycho-sexual stages and at what ages do they occur?

Answer 37

Oral, 0-1 years
Anal, 1-3 years
Phallic, 3-5 years
Latency, 5-puberty
Genital, puberty

Question 38

Strengths of Freud?

Answer 38

Explanatory power: Although much of Freud’s work is scientifically controversial (see below), it has some explanatory power. For example, Freud’s theories were among the first to explain how experiences in early childhood influence adult personality. This idea is now common to many other psychological theories, such as Bowlby’s continuity hypothesis and the double bind explanation of schizophrenia.
Practical applications: Freud’s theories yielded a treatment form known as psychoanalysis, which involves accessing and interpreting the unconscious mind (e.g. via dream analysis, free association). There is some evidence that psychoanalysis can successfully treat mild neuroses (though not serious mental disorders like schizophrenia) and later therapies developed from Freudian psychoanalysis (talking therapies) are still used today.

Question 39

Weaknesses of Freud?

Answer 39

Unscientific/pseudoscientific: Science is about what can be measured, observed, and repeated. By this standard, Freud’s theories are much less scientific than e.g. the behaviourist or biological approaches. For example, unconscious concepts (e.g. the id) are not even observable by the individual themself let alone measurable in a lab! Further, Freud’s theories were primarily based on individual case studies rather than measurable and quantified data. As such, Freud’s interpretation of the results is highly subjective. The relatively small number of case studies may also mean the theories derived from them may not apply to human psychology in general.
Ignores other factors: The psychodynamic approach explains mental disorders as a result of conflict between different aspects of the mind but this ignores other explanations (e.g. biological). For example, there are physical differences in both the neurochemistry and biological structures of people with OCD and without. Treating these physical causes is likely to be more effective for many psychological disorders.

Question 40

Basic assumptions of the humanistic approach?

Answer 40

The humanistic approach emphasises the free will of the individual.
Each individual is unique and so psychology should focus on the experience of each individual (subjective or idiographic approach) rather than trying to identify general rules of human behaviour (objective or nomothetic approach).
Rather than focusing on one aspect of a person (e.g. biological factors or childhood experiences), the humanistic approach believes each person should be viewed holistically.

Question 41

Is humanism based on free will or determinism?

Answer 41

Free Will

Question 42

How was self-actualisation described by Maslow?

Answer 42

He described it as meeting all the criteria to reach the top of his Hierarchy of Needs

Question 43

What are 4 of the criteria in the hierarchy?

Answer 43

Physiological needs eg food/water
Safety needs
Social needs
Esteem needs

Question 44

What’s congruence?

Answer 44

Where the self-image and ideal self match.

Question 45

Strengths of the humanistic approach?

Answer 45

Practical applications: The humanistic approach has yielded therapies that have helped people. For example, counselling psychology is commonly used within social work and has helped many people improve their lives. This is supported by a review by Sexton and Whiston (1994), who found that person-centred therapy was effective for some people. Beyond psychology, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been influential within the business world to explain and help improve motivation within the workplace.
Holistic: Whereas other psychological approaches are reductive (e.g. behaviourism reduces the mind to stimulus and response, the biological approach reduces the mind to biological structures and neurochemistry) the humanistic approach considers all aspects of a person’s life. This holistic approach may yield more valid insights and treatment as it is based on real-life experience and context rather than artificial and unrealistic laboratory experiments.

Question 46

Weaknesses of the humanistic approach?

Answer 46

Unscientific: Science is about what can be measured, observed, and repeated. But the subjective approach of humanistic psychology means it does not produce this kind of quantifiable or replicable data. As such, it is hard to objectively test the claims of the humanistic approach against reality and say whether they are true or not. Further, science involves developing hypotheses and general theories that explain behaviour, but humanistic psychology is idiographic and so rejects attempts to generalise behaviour in this way.
Cultural differences: Self-actualisation within the humanistic approach focuses entirely on the individual achieving their own potential. However, more collectivist cultures emphasise the common good and may prefer to focus on achieving community or societal potential rather than individual self-actualisation.