Influences and developments in religious belief

Question 1

What has happened to religious belief over time?

Answer 1

It has developed and changed

Question 2

Why have they been able to develop and change

Answer 2

With the development of various technological advances as well as advances in literacy and education, the ability of individuals to engage with religious ideas and theories has expanded

Question 3

Give an example of how religions can very widely in their interpretations and beliefs of the same topic

Answer 3

The ideas of life within Christianity and buddhism are hugely different

Question 4

Give some examples of modern day scientific theories that have developed which challenge the traditional Judaeo-Christian creation narratives

Answer 4

• Big bang theory
• Evolution
• Cosmological constant theory

Question 5

Why is death such a great scientific mystery

Answer 5

Because we cannot experiment with it. As the average person is unlikely to experience it and return to tell the tale to remaining mortals, the mystery of what happens, if anything, has pervaded human thought, literature and discussion

Question 6

Define death

Answer 6

The ceasing of biological function if a living being resulting in the ending of life and the function of that being

Question 7

How can death be seen as a unifying force

Answer 7

Because all life forms, big and small, complex and simple, have to die

Question 7

Give some examples of literary works containing the theme of death and what comes after

Answer 7

• Dante’s Inferno
• Harry Potter

Question 8

What will the beliefs religions have about the afterlife influence

Answer 8

The way in which believers will act and practise their faith

Question 9

What common thread links all religious beliefs about the afterlife

Answer 9

A reference to life after the event of the death of the human body

Question 10

In which religions can ideas of life after death in heaven or hell and bodily or spiritual resurrection be found

Answer 10

The Abrahamic ones

Question 11

Give an example of a faith that believes in reincarnation

Answer 11

Hinduism

Question 12

What 5 subsections can this study of life after death be split into

Answer 12

• Immortality of the soul
• Rebirth
• Reincarnation
• Replica Theory
• Resurrection

Question 13

Define physiological

Answer 13

Issues which have a relation to the biological study of how living being functions

Question 14

Where can the idea of the soul as distinct from the physical body be found

Answer 14

In almost every religious tradition

Question 15

Why can ideas of immortality of the soul be found

Answer 15

• Hinduism
• Christianity
• Islam
• Judaism

Question 16

Explain the Jewish concept of the the immortality of the soul

Answer 16

They have a term for the immortality of the soul, ha-nefesh, and it is part of Jewish thought despite having no direct mention in their holy scriptures

Question 17

How did Wittgenstein distinguish between body and soul in philosophical investigations

Answer 17

‘The body is the best picture of the human soul’

Question 18

Explain the idea of the immortality of the soul

Answer 18

States that the soul is separate and not dependent on the physical form of the body. It is immortal and does not die in the same way that physical bodies do

Question 19

With which philosopher is philosophical discussion of the immortality of the soul thought to have begun

Answer 19

Alcmeaon of Croton

Question 20

Explain his ideas

Answer 20

His beliefs regarding the continuity of movement of a soul (that the soul is independent of the body, moving through time) is thought to have heavily influenced Plato’s more fleshed out discussion

Question 21

Why did he believe in reincarnation

Answer 21

Based on his belief in the immortal nature of the soul

Question 21

Where did Plato address his ideas on the immortality of the soul

Answer 21

Throughout his philosophical works

Question 22

What influenced his idea of the immortality of the soul

Answer 22

The influence of the thinking of Socrates

Question 22

Why do some people disagree with the idea that Socrates influenced Plato

Answer 22

The only real source of knowledge about socrates is through Plato’s writing. Some people believe he was just used within Plato’s writing as a means to an end to communicate his ideas

Question 23

What two types of arguement can we divide his ideas into

Answer 23

Cyclical arguement and opposite arguement

Question 24

Explain his cyclical arguement

Answer 24

Said that the immortality of the soul can be compared to the sleep wake cycle. Just as a period of being awake must be followed by a period of being asleep, so too must life be followed by death. Plato argues that this process repeats over and over. He says that this is how the immortality of the soul functions. He argues that all life is cyclical in structure and is in this structure for all time. Therefore souls must reincarnate to participate in this cyclical structure of physical life. Thinks that between life cycles souls return to the realm of the forms for a period of contemplation. This is where his idea that all knowledge is innate and all learning is remembering comes from

Question 25

How does he prove this claim

Answer 25

In his Meno, he argues that evidence for this is found in the various innate values that he believes are shared by all humans. He said that at the point of rebirth we cannot remember what these values are and therefore need to be taught them

Question 26

Explain Plato’s idea that the soul is a pure entity

Answer 26

He argues that it is a pure entity - the body can be corrupted, by things like illness, disease or injury, but the soul remains intact regardless. The only way in which a soul can be damaged in a way similar to the physical body is by negativity like injustice. He argues that this will influence the soul in much the same way as disease does flesh. He argues that there is no evidence to draw the conclusion that things which harm the body like disease could also harm the soul. There is also no evidence, he argues, that the death of the physical body, which is the host of the soul, results in the death of the soul itself. He therefore argues that the soul is immortal and is not affected by the mortality of the body

Question 27

What is his second arguement about the soul called

Answer 27

The opposite arguement

Question 28

Explain his opposite arguement

Answer 28

Rests on the premise that there are two worlds - the world of change and the world of forms. The world of change is the physical world, of which the physical form is part. It is subject to change, suffering and death. The world of forms is where souls are. They are invisible and reflective, and rule over the physical. As matter within the world of forms is immutable, so too are souls, argues Plato. Therefore souls are immortal

Question 29

What do both the opposite and cyclical arguements prove about the soul

Answer 29

That it is immortal

Question 30

Give some examples of scholars who have made the case for the immortality of the soul since Plato

Answer 30

• Plotinus
• Descartes
• Leibniz
• Aquinas

Question 31

Aquinas developed 7 ‘ways’ or ‘proofs’ from which he made the case for the immortality of the soul. List them

Answer 31

• We can conceive of abstract ideas in our minds
• We have ideas of different realities that are not materially based
• We have a drive towards immaterial goals
• We are able to examine our own knowledge
• We want to live forever
• We have ideas and stories about souls that have been consistently present throughout time
• We share an idea of moral law

Question 32

The theme of reincarnation is not present in Abrahamic faiths. Where can this theme be found

Answer 32

• Hinduism
• Sikhism
• Buddhism
• Jainism
• Present in the religion of ancient cultures such as Greek culture and Gnosticism

Question 33

Within these different belief systems, the idea of reincarnation manifests in different ways, but what core idea remains the same

Answer 33

The idea that the soul or spirit of an individual, which cannot die, is reincarnated in another form

Question 34

Where does the idea of reincarnation stem from in Hinduism

Answer 34

The Vedas, which are holy scriptures that come from God

Question 35

What does the term palingenesis mean

Answer 35

The continuity of the life of the soul is termed as rebirth at the beginning of each new life cycle . This is referred to as the transmigration of souls. This view sees the soul as self, which moves and manifests through different bodies within life cycles

Question 36

Explain their idea that the soul never changes

Answer 36

A soul could be a human, the an ant, then a dog, then a horse across multiple life cycles, but it will always stay the same

Question 37

Explain the Hindu idea that there are two components to human beings

Answer 37

The physical sharira (body) and the spiritual atman (soul). The sharira can perish and is subject to constant change but the atman is immutable (it does not change). The atman does not require a body to exist in and of itself. It can exist without flesh. There are only a few thinks that can affectively effect it, which include karma and avidya

Question 38

What is karma

Answer 38

The actions of the individual and their resultant consequences

Question 39

Explain avidya

Answer 39

Translated as ignorance; the state of atman before it achieves spititual enlightenment

Question 40

Explain the idea of karma samsara

Answer 40

The idea that the changes of the form of a soul within this chain of life are viewed as being a consequences of your moral actions

Question 41

Explain the idea of moksha

Answer 41

This is liberation from the repetitive chain and indefitinite fate of reincarnation

Question 42

What can we conclude the Hindu concept of life after death is

Answer 42

The soul is seen as an immortal entity that does not perish with the body. Life after death is just a continuity of life, but in another form

Question 43

How is the next life you will be reincarnated into decided

Answer 43

It is the ways of thinking that are established through actions which impact the way in which an individual is reincarnated, rather than being the result of some kind of moral scorekeeping

Question 44

Buddhist also believe in karma, but how is their concept of the soul different

Answer 44

Because they do not believe in souls but rather the transfer of karmic energy after death and rebirth

Question 45

What does the Bhagavad Gita say about suffering of the soul

Answer 45

The Bhagavad Gita posits that any suffering experienced by the soul comes from the body, and from ego. Man needs to seek out knowledge in order to overcome this

Question 46

What does rebirth mean within buddhism

Answer 46

The beleif that after death, the nama rupa (name form, made up of the 4 mental elements) lives again on earth or in a different realm. It emphasises the idea that no aspect of the previous being is transferred to the new one

Question 47

What common example is used to illustrate the idea that in rebirth no aspect of the previous being is transferred to the new one

Answer 47

The lighting of one candle from another candle during which no substance travels from one to the other

Question 48

What is the end of the cycle of rebirth called?

Answer 48

Nirvana

Question 49

Which groups calls it nirvana

Answer 49

It is the sanskrit phrase largely used by mahayana buddhists

Question 50

Which groups calls it nibbana

Answer 50

Theraveda buddhists

Question 51

What must individuals fully understand to attain nirvana

Answer 51

The nature of ultimate reality

Question 52

What do you need to understand to grasp the nature of ultimate reality

Answer 52

The three marks of existence

Question 53

What are the three marks of existence

Answer 53

Dukkha, annica and anatta

Question 54

What is dukkha/dukha

Answer 54

Suffering - in buddhism all human experience is suffering. It is one of the three marks of existence that needs to be understood fully to attain nirvana

Question 55

What is annica/anitya

Answer 55

Impermenence - everying in this world is considered to be impermanent. Also one of the 3 marks of existence that needs to be fully understood to attain nirvana

Question 56

What is annata

Answer 56

The idea that we have no soul. The doctrine of no soul or no self. The idea that we should not cling to a permanent notion of self that will be reborn. One of the three marks of existence that needs to be fully understood to attain nirvana

Question 57

How is the buddhist notion of karma different

Answer 57

There is more of an emphasis on the intention behind moral actions. The outcomes of actions matter but the intention or intended outcome is more important

Question 58

Define nama rupa

Answer 58

Name form. Made up of the 4 mental elements

Question 59

What are the 4 mental elements

Answer 59

Feeling, perception, moral will and consciousness. Together they make up the nama rupa

Question 60

Define vinnana

Answer 60

Consciousness

Question 61

What is nirvana

Answer 61

The end of rebirth

Question 62

Where does replica theory find it roots

Answer 62

In a thought experiment by John Hick

Question 63

What premise does replica theory start with

Answer 63

The premise that it is difficult to conceive of a person without a body. The concept we have of each other as being people is firmly rooted in the habituation of ourselves within bodies. Therefore if we concieve of people as living in an afterlife, it is logical to conclude that this must involve bodies

Question 64

There is an issue with this premise that Hick tries to solve with his replica theory. What is it

Answer 64

That the afterlife body must be different to the one that we inhabit during our life. This means that logically we would be in a different body to the one that we inhabit during our life. The difficulty comes with the idea of identity - how can we conceive of being in a body which is not our own and this still being us?

Question 65

Describe his thought experiment

Answer 65

1) Dies and is remembered by all his friends and family, who all reminisce about various aspects of his character that they enjoyed and loved about him. At the same time, however, a physically identical man, whwo somehow shares all the traits of the original John Smith, appears and the body of the original John Smith disappears. There are no differences between this John Smith and the old one, their DNA is identical. Although the family might not know how this had happened, they would have to conclude that this was John smith

2) He dies in America and is buried by his friends and family - however in India a man appears with the same traits, personality, DNA and physical appearance as John Smith from the USA. We have the corpse of John Smith and the new John Smith who is identical. Even if the family did not know how this had happened, they would still have to conclude that this was John smith

3) He dies in the UK and at the same time, a John Smith with every single one of the same physical and personality traits as the original appears in a different world. We would also have to conclude that this is John smith

Question 66

Why is Replica Theory as a theory of the afterlife more in keeping with a scientific outlook

Answer 66

Because it arises from a materialist idea of the Christian afterlife, rather than a dualist one, which is much more in keeping with a scientific outlook

Question 67

Strengths of replica theory

Answer 67

• Works logically within the vacuum of the thought experiment and fits well with biblical teaching such as 1 Corinthians 15
• Works well with the Irenean Theodicy. Therefore fits with Hick’s own vale of soul making theodicy. While the theory itself is debateable it fits well with replica theory
• By stipulating one replica at a time, Hick somewhat avoids the potential issue of obvious dualism within identity which would have resulted in a paradox, rendering the thought experiment void

Removes the need for a soul and so makes the theory more scientific

In line with biblical scripture such as 1 Corinthians 15 and revelations 21:1-2

Works with the soul making theodicy as this resurrection would may be one of many we go on to inhabit during the process of soul making

Question 68

Weaknesses of replica theory

Answer 68

Critiques this idea on the basis of value - arguing that a copy of something is not as valuable as the original. Hick counters this by stressing that the replica is singular, that there would not be multiple replicas and that one person can only be one person. You cannot be multiple people at the same time. He argues that the dead body is no longer a person and is no longer the ‘you’ when you were alive. It is therefore possible for replica theory to work within the instance of death.

Paul Davies argues that it offers little in the way of comfort - should a replica be created at the point of death, this does not change the fact that you have died. Hick attempts to counter this by saying that you can only have one replica at a time, which can continue to be replicated without limit. However, this rebuttal does little to address the challenge.

Seems to be a logical fallacy if there is a break in continuity between the former self and the replica self to say that they can be the same self. The two individuals cannot be the same because the second is a replica and the first is still in existence

Issues with dualism. Hick was not a dualist. Hick places the stipulation of one stipulation at a time; while this is a condition of the though experiment, if we take this further and beyond the scope of the thought experiment it does not work. If there are multiple replicas then it does not follow that they can all share one identity, and it this point they cease to be the same person

Brian Davies argues that a copy can only ever be a copy. The inherent selfhood of the person has been changed as the replica is not the original.

What about the continuity between the original and the afterlife

Question 69

What does Davies say in his 1982 work An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion to support he arguement that a replica undermines the selfhood of the original

Answer 69

‘For the continuous existence of a person, more is required than replication’

Question 70

How did Hick counter his own arguement in 2009

Answer 70

Points out that people die at different points in their life, some at infancy, middle age or old age. If someone dies at 80 dying of cancer will they be resurrected at 80 dying of cancer. Are we in our resurrected state suddenly to be miraculously cured of all diseases and do we suddenly grow younger or older to some ideal age. All this is possible but it complicates the theory to a point where to my mind it ceases to be attractive or plausible

Question 71

Where does Hick lay out his thought experiment

Answer 71

death and eternal life (1976)

Question 72

What was he looking to show with replica theory

Answer 72

Looking to show how the idea of resurrection could work. Concerns “God’s re-creation of the human physchophysical individual, not as the organism that died but as a spirtitual body inhabiting a spiritual world as our physical body inhabits the physical world”

Question 73

List the three phases of his thought experiment

Answer 73

John Smith living in America disappears infront of his friends and family in America and reappears in India. Exactly the same. Same DNA, memories etc. And thinks of himself as the same John Smith who appeared in America. If tests confirmed this all his friends would have to say that this was John Smith even if they didn’t know how it happened

John Smith in America dies and a replica is created at this exact moment in India, even though the body remains in the USA. Hick said that we would have to say that he had been miraculously re-created in another place

John Smith dies on earth. He reappears as a resurrection replica in a different world altogether, a resurrection world inhabited only be resurrected persons. Hick says this supposition provides a model by which one may conceive of the divine recreation of the embodied human personality

Question 74

What does resurrection broadly mean in terms of life after death

Answer 74

The concept of life returning to the body or being which has dead; life has ended and then been returned to the deceased - the break is clear

Question 75

In which three regions does the idea of bodily resurrection holds importance

Answer 75

• Christianity
• Islam
• Judaism

Question 76

Christians believe are resurrected bodies will be impassable. What does this mean

Answer 76

They are physically beyond the pain and suffering experience of humans and unable to experience suffering

Question 77

Christians believe are resurrected bodies will be able to expeirence glory/brightness. What does this mean

Answer 77

To experience this requires a body, however, this is described as manifesting in a number of different ways

Question 78

Christians believe are resurrected bodies will be powerful. What does this mean

Answer 78

Our heavenly bodies are freed from the feeble limitations of our earthly bodies

Question 79

How did the idea of bodily resurrection pose a problem for Christian philosophers like Thomas Aquinas

Answer 79

Because they needed to somehow marry this idea with Aristotle’s ideas about the importance and immortality of the soul

Question 80

What do Jews believe will happen when the prophet Elijah comes

Answer 80

The following him will be the messiah who will usher in the messianic age which will involve a resurrection of the dead

Question 81

When do Muslim’s believe that this kind of resurrection of the dead will occur

Answer 81

On the Day of Judgement

Question 82

List some of the questions raised by the idea of resurrection

Answer 82

A physical resurrection would mean a physical heaven. What would it be like? Are there physical boundaries? What is the climate?

Would heavenly bodies be impacted in the same way that our worldly bodies are?

Will we be perfect, without the flaws all humans have?

Question 83

What did the philosopher Peter Cole ask about the Christian notion of resurrection

Answer 83

If Christians are in a physical resurrected state in a physical environment, will they have to queue to see Jesus

Question 84

How do Christians respond to the kinds of questions outlined in the previous two flashcards

Answer 84

They could posit that heaven is a perfect place in which all suffering will be alleviated, therefore meaning we would have to have perfect bodies. We will, however, be able to recognise one another despite these physical changes, as these abilities will be granted by God

Question 85

What two different viewpoint do debates about the relationship between mind and body boil down to fundamentally

Answer 85

• The idea that our mind and body are one entity - The idea that our mind and body are separate entities

Question 86

Define dualism

Answer 86

Human beings as an entity are a combination of two different aspects - mind and body are separate aspects of humans

Question 87

Define substance dualism

Answer 87

Human beings are an entity made of two substances, positing that the mind and body are separate substances

Question 88

Define monism

Answer 88

Human beings as an entity are not made up of two aspects - but one

Question 89

Materialism

Answer 89

Human beings as an entity are made of one substance which is the same regardless of whether or not one is discussing mind and body

Question 90

Which two Greek philosophers act as key players within debate of this issue

Answer 90

Plato and Aristotle

Question 91

What did Greek philosophy commonly view as the relationship between the soul and the body

Answer 91

Saw the soul as separate from the body

Question 92

Why will what Plato and Aristotle meant by ‘soul’ by different to modern conceptions

Answer 92

Because the term soul has garnered certain connotations within Judaeo-Christians society but A and P predates such views. Plato also used the term ‘pysche’ which is translated into English as soul

Question 93

What have we already established Plato believed the soul to be

Answer 93

Immortal

Question 94

Why can we call Plato a substance dualist

Answer 94

He believed the soul was its own entity and belonged to the world of forms, rather than the world of change where the body dwelled. Therefore the body and soul (mind) are different entities made of different substances

Question 95

Which of the two placed a particularly large importance of the soul

Answer 95

Aristotle

Question 96

How can we say he had similar views on the soul to Plato

Answer 96

Because they were both dualists

Question 97

Why did A think that the soul was so important

Answer 97

The presence of the soul within the body was for him the differentiating factor between a dead body and a live body

Question 98

What is property dualism

Answer 98

Popular form of modern dualism to which many modern theologians ascribe to. Philosophical view that posits that the wold is made of just one physical substance. However it posits that in the world there exists two kinds of substance - the physical and the mental. Mental properties are non physical. This theoretically allows for the understanding of the physical world as we experience it while allowing for possibilities beyond the physical

Question 99

What is moral reasoning a field of study within

Answer 99

Pyschology

Question 100

What is moral reasoning

Answer 100

The ability of individuals to make decisions within a situation informed by their use of reason in order to ascertain the most moral thing to do

Question 101

What two things must we do to make these moral decisions

Answer 101

Requires the ability for human beings to identify the need for a moral choice to be made, an the ability to make a moral judgement

Question 102

How does is morality undermined by belief in the afterlife

Answer 102

If an agent makes moral choices on the basis that they will be rewarded in the afterlife, then it could be argued that this makes the choice not fully moral, as they are doing so not out of moral sense or duty but rather out of a desire to be rewarded in the afterlife

Question 103

What are the implications of not believing in an afterlife for morality

Answer 103

Perhaps this could have an impact on their moral choices. Are moral choices even necessary for these individuals?

Question 104

Where can we find recorded instances of near death experiences

Answer 104

They have been described by those who have undergone things like resucitation after heart stopping or a cessation of brain activity

Question 105

What kind of theories do NDEs help to develop

Answer 105

Theories about what could be awaiting us after death

Question 106

List some of the common experiences of those who have experienced an NDE

Answer 106

• Sense of peace
• Removal from the body and acknowledgement of being dead
• A sense of overwhelming love
• Seeing or encountering loved ones who are dead
• Presence of a bright white light, commonly at the end of a tunnel

Question 107

Who gave a TedXTalk about his two NDEs

Answer 107

Mr Lewis Brown Griggs

Question 108

What did his first near death experience involve

Answer 108

His first examples described himself crashing a car, after which his spirit dissociated from his body into a little white tornado, leaving behind the car and his physical body. His experience exhibits a pattern of most NDEs - an awareness of a separation from the body, an acknowledgement of a spiritual realm and a return to life with a regenerated sense of purpose and a marked change in personality. He described pure light and pure peace

Question 109

What do the scientific and psychological think about NDEs

Answer 109

Scientifically, they can be described as disturbances in the sensory functions of the body, usually manifesting in more than one sense (e.g., the experiences will not just see a vision, but physically feel it too) which has limited explanation as to how and why they occur. Therefpre they have particular interest for the scientific and psychological community - what are they, why do they happen and what causes them?

Question 110

Why is Kenneth Ring important in the discussion of NDEs

Answer 110

He is an American Psychology professor and among the founder of the International Association for near death studies

Question 111

Kenneth Ring posits that the is a general pattern of 5 continuums among those who have had NDEs

Answer 111

• The feeling of peace
• The feeling of the separation of the spirit from the body
• The feeling of entering darkness
• The seeing of light
• Entering the light

Question 112

Which of these continuums does he admit is less common than the others

Answer 112

Entering the light

Question 113

Ring has noted that there is commonality in the nature of experience among those who have had an NDE by ‘dying’ in a similar way. Give some examples of this

Answer 113

• He has noted that survivors of attempted suicide are likely to report the stages that involve a feeling of peace
• Also notes how those who have had an NDE after a prolonged period of illness tend to experience the ‘light at the end of the tunnel’ phenomenom

Question 114

Who first introduced the term NDE

Answer 114

Dr Raymond Moody

Question 115

When did Moody introduce the term

Answer 115

1975

Question 116

What was the name of the book in which he introduced the term

Answer 116

‘Life After Life’

Question 117

Within what context does he discuss NDEs within the book

Answer 117

A psychological context

Question 118

List the 7 commonalities he identifies within the experience of an NDE

Answer 118

• The feeling of peace
• An out of body experience
• Moving through an area of darkness, such as tunnel
• Awareness of light at the end of the tunnel
• Coming into contact with a vision of a bright being made of light
• Seeing your life flash before your eyes
• Seeing visions of a beautiful place separate from the world we know

Question 119

List some of the criticisms of the ideas of NDEs

Answer 119

• Only a very small % of people who have almost died have experienced an NDE
• Knowledge of the stereotypes of NDEs might be so well known that the experience could be anticipated and this could then have an impact on how it is experienced. For instance the light at the end of the tunnel phenomenon is so well known that this might result in more people expecting and therefore experiencing this
• Could simply be the result of hallucinations
• Biologically, it has been proven that depriving the body of oxygen, as occurs during an NDE, can cause hallucinations. This could biologically explain the phenomenon. Some attempts to recreate the effects of an NDE by causing a CO2 build up within the brain have had results which suggest that this could be the cause as they garnered results similar to an NDE
• A personality change as a result of an NDE is too vague to be considered evidence
• An internal reality does not necessarily point towards an external reality
• Barry Beyerstein argues that ‘Life After Life’ is a flawed reading of psychology
• James Alcock criticise Moody, stating that he ‘appears to ignore a great deal of scientific literature dealing with hallucinating experiences in general

Question 120

Describe importance of evidence within a modern society

Answer 120

One of the hallmarks of modern society as a basis for how we in modern society generally understand facts. It is commonly seen as the way via which proof of a claim or a belief can be ascertained. Facts which are proved by evidence are believed to be true, and claims which cannot be backed up by evidence are considered to be false

Question 121

What did John Locke say about about the relationship between religion and evidence

Answer 121

He argues that the only opinions worth having had religious support

Question 122

Would did Clifford say about the relationship between evidence and morality

Answer 122

He said that it was immoral to believe something without some

Question 123

Why would William James disagree with this

Answer 123

He argued that is some instances, beliefs which have a lack of evidence can be correct. The essence of the truth behind the claim is not necesarily reliant of the presence of truth. There are life decisions and choices that we make on a daily basis that are made with no evidence provided

Question 124

What points does Davies argue about the use of evidence

Answer 124

• He said that some beliefs are impossible to be proved, and therefore no evidence can be given for these
• We often accept information without the need for truth. Not all claims need to be backed up with evidence. For instance, if someone trusted told you something trivial and non controversial (like that they played football the day before) then we will accept this as true without needing to double check
• We all use the word belief to refer to things which have been proved, and things which have not been proved; we therefore need to be clear what we are discussing during debates
• Some proofs can only go so far - we can prove that JC existed, for example. The vast majority of biblical scholars accept this as a historical fact. However, it cannot be conclusively proved whether or not he was the SoG

Question 125

Using Wittgenstein’s theory of LG, explain how theists and atheists can have a different concept of what consistitutes proof

Answer 125

Religious language regarding evidence is important to consider. We must consider the extent to which a theist might use language to convey their ideas that they might consider to convey evidence. For instance, a theist might use a specific way of talking about an event which would convey their belief that the event was a miracle. Someone who is not religious will be unlikely to accept this. This is because they are arguing from two different viewpoints and according to W, speaking in two languages with different rules. Within the rules of RL, for instance, an experience might be accepted as proof and evidence for an already held belief, but outside this religious community this would not be accepted. It is therefore difficult for these two ways of communicating to effectively discuss evidence as a concept as they each have differing ideas of what is meant by the term ‘evidence’ and what constitutes effective evidence

Question 126

How does the role of evidence relate to the arguements around life after death

Answer 126

Questions over whether empirical evidence of the soul or the afterlife is necessary to hold such beliefs. There are also questions over what would constitute such evidence, and what would be considered proof, as what one person might consider to be proof might be rejected by another. If an individual had a religious experience they would consider this to be evidence of an afterlife due to their experience and would be utterly convinced of the existence of an afterlife. Should such forms of evidence be admissable cannot be verified? Can it be logically argued that people are able to believe in ideas which have been contradicted by modern scientific enquiry and findings

Question 127

What is the generally accepted view of the relationship between religion and science

Answer 127

That they are in conflict

Question 128

What do some view this idea as

Answer 128

A false dichotomy

Question 129

Give an example of a modern atheist who has adopted the narrative that science and religion are two opposing schools of thought which are wholly opposed

Answer 129

Dawkins

Question 130

Give an example of a scholar who would disagree with this

Answer 130

Alistair McGrath

Question 131

On what grounds would McGrath agree

Answer 131

He believes that science and religion can exist simultaneously within the thoughts and belief systems of individuals

Question 132

What key term is related to the idea of conflict between religion and science

Answer 132

NOMA

Question 133

What does NOMA stand for

Answer 133

Non-overlapping magisterium

Question 134

Who posited the idea of NOMA

Answer 134

Stephen Jay Goulds

Question 135

Explain Goulds’ idea of NOMA

Answer 135

Posits this as a solution to the perceived problem - that the two have jurisdictions of facts, so to speak, that do not overlap and that there is therefore no issue with them existing simultaneously. They need not be at war in his view. He argues that science is concerned with the facts and the hows of life while religion is concerned with the deeper meanings and the whys

Question 136

What debate is the idea of evidence an important part of

Answer 136

The debate between religion and science

Question 137

What is the most common way to test and observe evidence

Answer 137

The scientific method

Question 138

How does the scientific method work

Answer 138

• An individual observes something within nature of life
• The individual forms an idea based on this observation - this is known as a hypothesis
• The hypothesis posited by the individual should be tested to see whether or not it is correct. This is known as experimentation
• A conclusion is drawn from the experimentation

Question 139

What school of philosophy proposed by Aristotle does the scientific method make use of

Answer 139

Empiricism

Question 140

What is the only way a hypothesis is valid in the scientifc method?

Answer 140

If it can be tested

Question 141

How does the scientific method cause issues between theists and non theists

Answer 141

Because they have different ideas about how to garner information. What one might consider to be a valid test or sufficient evidence for a claim, the other may not

Question 142

Give an example of how theists and atheists can disagree over whether certain evidence counts as sufficient evidence for God

Answer 142

A theist might consider a miracle to be a way of observing God. If a miracle occurs then something must have caused it and this could therefore be considered as proof of God. However, an atheist may not consider this to be evidence for the existence of God, and may instead point towards other reasons why the event took pace

Question 143

What caveat must we remember that limits the efficacy if science as a challenge to religion

Answer 143

There is alot of debate about the scientific method and how useful it is. The question is raised as to whether or not it is the role of scientists to empirically verify or falsify theories

Question 144

What does the term miracle mean in a theological context

Answer 144

An extraordinary event in which God reveals something of himself

Question 145

Why can the term be considered vague and disputed

Answer 145

Because the nature of these extraordinary events varies, and there is disagreement over which events should be considered miracles

Question 146

Explain the three different definitions of the term

Answer 146

1) A common definition of a miracle is one that conforms to two principles…

• It must be contrary to our understanding of the laws of nature
• It must have a purpose and a religious significance. SE Evans expresses this by saying; ‘obviously the miracles of religion, such as Christianity are not merely bizarre events or stunts. They have a function and purpose and usually that function is a revelatory tone

2) Thomas Aquinas outlined three categories or ranks of miracle…

• Events that can never happen naturally and so must be brought about by God, such as Moses parting the Red Sea. This is a similar definition to the one above
• Things which could happen naturally, but which only God could have brought about in that particular order or in that timescale, such as instantly curing a blind person or someone who was suffering from illness
• Events which do happen naturally but that God does without the use of natural laws or in a way that is miraculous, such as instantly healing a sick person

3) An alternative categorisation of miracles is…

• Events which breaks the laws of nature, such as the sun falling out of the sky, walking on water, or raising someone from the dead
• An improbability, such as a leg healing instantaneously
• A coincidence, such as praying for rain and then it starts raining

Question 147

Define improbable

Answer 147

Something that is unlikely to happen given past experience or scientific thinking based on reason and evidence

Question 148

Define natural law

Answer 148

A scientific principle about how the world works. It is based on empirical evidence and is believed to be constant and unbreakable

Question 149

How does Paul Tillich define miracles

Answer 149

‘An event which is astonishing, unusual, shaking and without contradicting the rational structure of reality, an event which points to the mystery of being’

Question 150

How does John Macquarrie define miracles

Answer 150

A miracle is an event that excites wonder - it is believed that God is in the event in some special way, and intends to achieve some special end by it

Question 151

What what the more controversial definition put forward by Brian Davies

Answer 151

Described them as unexpected and fortuitous events in the light of which we are disposed to give thanks to God. This is a more inclusive definition and includes events such as lucky coincides, that Aquinas would not consider to be miracles. It also suggests that events which radically challenge our understanding of natural laws, like the parting of the red sea, are only ‘fortuitous’ rather than something more significant

Question 152

How does RF Holland define miracles

Answer 152

An extraordinary coincidence that is interpreted as having religious significance. The definition of a miracle depends on how individuals interpret it, rather than on the nature of the miracle itself or whether a natural law is brokenn

Question 153

What are the two different views of miracles we come across in this chapter

Answer 153

Realist and anti realist views of miracles

Question 154

What does the realist view of miracles hold

Answer 154

Think that a miracle has truly taken place because of an act of God and ahould be interpreted and viewed as such, and it could be understood by anyone

Question 155

What does the anti realist view of miracles hold

Answer 155

Holds that miracles can only be understood within the context of the individual faith in which the believer is experiencing. Therefore if a miracle is experienced by a Christian, they will project their knowledge and concepts of God and religion onto the miracle when interpreting it

Question 156

What is the ultimate miracle in the Bible

Answer 156

Jesus’ resurrection

Question 157

Define immanent

Answer 157

Something which is inherent, close to or within `

Question 158

Why are miracles in the NT often described as signs

Answer 158

Because they were considered to be signs that revealed something about who God was

Question 159

LIst some of the examples of theological meaning and purpose we can see behind the Bible miracles

Answer 159

• To enable people to know God better
• Demonstrate the ways God wants to achieve his plan for this world
• To show that God is immanent (active and involved in the world)
• To demonstrate his omnipotence
• Demonstrate his omnibenevolence and love for humanity
• To explain and show Jesus’ nature
• Help explain Jesus’ teaching and bring people to faith
• To show what God’s Kingdom will be like

Question 160

In what essay did Hume refute the idea of miracles

Answer 160

‘On Miracles’

Question 161

What broader peace of work did ‘On Miracles’ appear in?

Answer 161

An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding

Question 162

Why did he consider belief in miracles to be irrational

Answer 162

Because of the high improbability and lack of evidence of miracles occuring

Question 163

How did he define miracles

Answer 163

A transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the diety

Question 164

Why did he see miracles as improbable

Answer 164

He held this view on the basis that natural laws had been proved to be constant and unchanging and therefore very improbable and unlikely to be broken. He considered that it will always be more likely that the witness to a miracle is mistaken or lying because of how unlikely it is that a miracle could take place

Question 165

Explain his arguement from the reliability of testimony

Answer 165

Says that when choosing to believe a miracle or not, the evidence will always be higher from natural laws remaining inviolable than for a miracle report, where the person could be mistaken/lying etc. This isn’t a blanket rule, as Hume does acknowledge there could be some incredible circumstance by which a miracle report could evidentially outweigh natural laws

Question 166

List Hume’s 4 a posteriori reasons for why there is inadequate evidence of miracles

Answer 166

• Miracles are never witnessed by a sufficient number of people and are not witnessed by people with ‘unquestioned good sense, education and learning’
• Often witnesses by theists, who make for particularly unreliable witnesses because their faith leads them to naturally want to see miracles, distorting their perception
• Miracles are witnessed in ‘ignorant and barbourous nations’
• Different religions claim that miracles prove the exclusive truth of their beliefs. Hume considered this inconsistency to cancel out the truth claims of all witnesses

Question 167

What does it mean to ‘prove’ within philosophy

Answer 167

To prove something it to show or demonstrate that something is true of false. This can be done through logic or evidence

Question 168

Weaknesses in Hume’s take on miracles

Answer 168

• The improbability of a miracle does not mean that it could not happen; he has not proved that it cannot happen, only that it is improbable. It might even make the probability of it being a divine act higher because of the difficulty of explaining it away through natural causes
• He does not explain why the testimony of religious believers should be considered more unreliable than that of anyone else. A theist would want to be just as sure as anyone else that their experience was miraculous and pointed to God. They also might be more likely to identify what constitutes the hand of God than someone of no faith
• Some miracles, like the miracle of the sun, have been witnesses by many people and are often witnesses by educated people, such as the uni scientist who witnesses the miracle of the sun
• Hume ignores the meaning miracles can have beyond literal interpretation, such as the symbolic or allegorical interpretation of biblical miracles or the meaning imbued in miracles considered to be myths

Question 169

Counter Hume’s arguement against miracles on the grounds that religions claim that miracles prove the exclusive truth of their beliefs

Answer 169

This could be resolved by denying the exclusivity claim made by religions by saying that more than one is true of that they are all different versions of the same truth, as William James does. Similarly, the Christian God may perform miracles to non Christian believers and so the exclusive claim of Christianity could be maintained

Question 170

What does Mackie say to support this counter arguement

Answer 170

He notes that this arguement has less force now, as the adherents of different religions have toned down their hostility towards one another

Question 171

How does Swinburne criticise Hume’s view of natural laws

Answer 171

On the basis that natural laws are not objective facts but rather descriptions of how we think the world works. Therefore, when miracles happen we have to accept that natural laws work differently to how we thought previously. Occurances which break natural laws are unlikely, but miracles are inherently unlikely events. If they happened all the time, we would not think they were miracles. Because miracles are one off occasions it is unlikely that one miracle will change how we think natural laws will work normally. Science can therefore largely remain the same

Question 172

What view around natural laws does W Pannenburg have in common with Swinburne

Answer 172

That natural laws are broken but that these are one off events that do not mean natural laws are meaningless

Question 173

Explain Pannenburg’s view

Answer 173

The concept of miracles has often been viewed as irreconcilable with the concept of natural law. But this contradiction applies only to an understanding of a miracle as a break of natural law. However, the idea of the miracle need not be conceived in this way. Instead we can see them as unusual events that contradict our accustomed views of the course of nature but not nature itself. It is sufficient to regard unusual occurances as signs of God’s special activity in creation

Question 174

Why would Stephen Evans disagree with Swinburne and Pannenburg’s views

Answer 174

He disagreed with their interpretation of Hume and argues that Hume simply meant that a miracle was an exception to the normal processes of nature and that he therefore does not misunderstand the nature of natural laws

Question 175

Where did the miracle of the sun take place

Answer 175

Fatima, Portugal

Question 176

When did the miracle take place

Answer 176

1917

Question 177

How did the eyewitness account of university professor of science Jose Maria de Almeida Garrett describe the miracle

Answer 177

I could see the sun, a very clear disc, with its sharp edge, which gleamed without hurting the sight. It kept its light and heat, and stood out clearly in the sky, with a sharp edge, like a large gaming table. The most astonishing thing was to be able to stare at the solar disc for a long time, brilliant light and heat, without hurting the eyes or damaging the retina, there were also changes of colour in the atmosphere. Looking at the sun I noticed that everything else was becoming darkened. Everything had assumed an amethyst colour. Then suddenly the sun, whirling wildly, seemed to loosen itself from the firmament and blood read, advance threateningly upon earth as it to crush us with its fiery weight

Question 178

What did John Locke consider a miracle to be

Answer 178

An event which is interpreted by the witnesses to be contrary to the laws of nature and points to the divine

Question 179

Give a quote from Locke where he explains this view

Answer 179

‘A miracle then I take to be a sensible operation, which, being above the comprehension of the spectator, and in his opinion contrary to the established course of nature, is taken by him to be divine

Question 180

How can his view of miracles be seen as agent relative

Answer 180

Because whether or not something is a miracle depends on the opinion of the titnesses as to whether something breaks natural laws

Question 181

Explains Locke’s idea that religion and God are are a necessary part of what a miracle is

Answer 181

He believes that to be certain an event is a miracle it is necessary to know that the messenger that delivers it is sent from God. He said that, with Jesus, as soon as one witnesses the miracle of him calming the storm at the sea, it is such a mark of great power than one cannot but receive his doctrine

He said that an event should not be considered a miracle if it is not consistent and praising of God, because God would not send someone to perform such a miracle

Believed an event should not be viewed to be a miracle if there are ‘marks of a superior and overruling power’, such as more impressive miracles. This is because God would not allow himself to be ‘usurped’ by an ‘inferior being’

Question 182

How does RF Holland define miracles Define

Answer 182

‘An extraordinary coincidence that is interpreted as having religious significance. The definition of a miracle depends on how witnesses interpret it, rather than on the nature of the miracle itself or whether a natural law is broken

Question 183

What example does Holland use to illusrtate his ideas on miracles

Answer 183

A child riding a toy motor car, which gets stuck on the track at a train crossing. The train driver in the train approaching the child then suddenly faints, releasing his hand from the control lever. This causes the train to stop automatically, just before he would have otherwise hit the child. This is a lucky coincidence because the cause seems to be the driving fainting rather than God. Holland describes how the child’s mother insists the event is a miracle because of its personal significance for her

Whether a single event is considered a miracle will therefore vary from person to person. It also denies the idea of divine intervention, considering the miracles to instead be coincidences, which are compatible with normal human experience

Question 184

Explain Gareth Moore’s approach to miracles

Answer 184

Argued that God is ‘no one’. By this he meant that God is not knowable, at least in the sense that other humans are knowable. Talking about God is very different from talking about things in this world for which we can use everyday language. God is neither someone nor something; God is nothing and nobody. ‘God does what nobody does, God causes what nothing causes’. Therefore it is not possible to make positive statements about miracles. We can only say that there is no other explanation for the event apart from God. Miracle is a special term within religious language to describe these events

Question 185

Swinburne argued that there is evidence of miracles from the historical evidence left behind, including…

Answer 185

• Our memory of miracles
• The testimony of others that miracles took place
• The physical traces left behind by the miracle
• The results of miracles could be considered evidence, such as an unexplained sudden healing or the change in attitude of the experiant

Question 186

Explain Swinburne’s principle of testimony

Answer 186

Unless there is evidence to the contrary, we should believe witnesses evidence about the miracle they saw, on the basis that people generally tell the truth.

Question 187

Explain his principle of credulity

Answer 187

Unless there is evidence otherwise, we should believe that things are as they seem to be; thousands of people claim to have seen a miracle so we should accept that they probably did witness the miracle that they claim to have witnessed. They might have been mistaken, but it is unlikely that so many people would be mistaken.

Question 188

What is Swinburne trying to do by pointing towards these principles and the historical evidence of miracles

Answer 188

Attempting to show that it is probable that miracles happen. He is not attempting to prove that they happen but only that the evidence that is available should be accepted and, when it is, it suggests that it is likely that miracles happened

Question 189

How is Maurice Wiles similar to Hume in terms of his approach to miracles

Answer 189

He also wants to argue that they do not take place

Question 190

Why does he disagree with Hume’s approach to disproving miracles

Answer 190

He did not argue on the basis of science or rationality as Hume had, arguing that ‘the notion of a miracle cannot simply be ruled put on scientific grounds as logically impossible, since the world we know is not a closed, determinstically ordered system’

Question 191

What concept does Wiles use as the basis for his arguement that miracles cannot exist instead of science

Answer 191

Morality

Question 192

Explain Wiles’ moral case that miracles cannot exist

Answer 192

Considered that if God did intervene in the world to perform miracles then he would be immoral. God would have performed a few relatively trivial miracles but then would have chosen to to intervene to stop various atrocities. Wiles felt that bringing about these trivial miracles could not be justified in the face of the horrendous suffering that was not stopped

Wiles also argued that it would be impossible for God to break natural laws all the time because this would create chaos in which we could not understand how the world works or to be able to live normal lives

Wiles concluded that there are three options…

1) God intervenes all the time and there is chaos

2) God intervenes sometimes and seems unfair and partial

3) God does not intervene in the world

Wiles argued that it must be the third option - that God created the world but does not intervene in it and does not bring about miracles. It is therefore more important for God to be just and omnibenevolent than for him to bring about miracles

Question 193

Weaknesses of Wiles’ moral case for the non existence of miracles

Answer 193

Inconsistent with biblical accounts which make it clear that God does intervene in the world. The miracles in the Bible are also depicted as religiously significant and important in the Bible so cannot be simply dismissed

It is wrong to say that God would be immoral if he only intervened in certain cases. The GoCT is considered to be supremely morally perfect, even if this takes a form we cannot currently understand in our fallen state. When we judge God we do so by our own flawed human standards, rather than the true divine standards that determine morality

Wiles misunderstands the purpose of miracles, which is not necessarily to help people, but to reveal something about God which has religious significance (John’s signs). God may therefore have not intervened in past atrocities on the grounds that it might not have been an appropriate way for God to reveal himself

Question 194

What are cosmologies

Answer 194

Theories about where the universe came from

Question 195

What debate have cosmologies been at the heart of

Answer 195

The debate between religion and science

Question 196

What are religious explanations for where the universe came from called

Answer 196

Creation themes

Question 197

What are scientific explanations for where the universe came from called

Answer 197

Scientific cosmologies

Question 198

What are scientific cosmologies

Answer 198

Scientific theories about where the universe came from

Question 199

Historically there have been several different scientific cosmologies. What is the most accepted?

Answer 199

The Big Bang Theory

Question 200

How old does this theory approximate that the universe is

Answer 200

13.8 billion years old

Question 201

What does the Big Bang Theory state

Answer 201

Has its origins in the observation that there was movement within the universe. Through observation, this movement appears to be occuring outwards from a central point, as the universe appears to be expanding, which would indicate a central point. Posits that around 14 billion years ago, that central point was a small ball of concentrated energy that was very hot. The small ball of energy expanded very quickly. According to the famed physicist Stephen Hawking, this hot concentrated ball of energy and matter did not expand into space which was already there, but this rapid expansion created the space which it occupied. According to Hawking, this was the point at which space and time came into being, which is termed as the Big Bang within the scientific community

Question 202

How does Einstein’s posited theory of general relativity support the BBT

Answer 202

Indirectly supports it. Based on this model, we can model evolution of the universe after a certain point using general relativity - but this breaks down at the singularity.

Question 203

What does the BBT say existed before this central ball of energy 14 billion years ago

Answer 203

Nothing

Question 204

Is the BBT based on rationalism or empiricism

Answer 204

Empiricism

Question 205

What kind of a priori assumptions does the theory rest upon

Answer 205

The cosmological principle and the universality of laws

Question 206

What is the cosmological principle

Answer 206

The Cosmological Principle is a foundational concept in cosmology that asserts the large-scale homogeneity and isotropy of the universe on cosmological scales. In simpler terms, it states that, when viewed on a sufficiently large scale, the universe looks roughly the same in all directions (isotropy) and has a similar structure at every point in space (homogeneity). This principle is fundamental to the understanding of the overall structure and behavior of the universe.

The Cosmological Principle can be broken down into two main components:

Isotropy:

Isotropy refers to the idea that the universe appears the same in all directions when observed on a large scale. No particular direction in space is preferred over any other. This implies that the universe doesn’t have a specific “center” or “edge” on these large scales.
Homogeneity:

Homogeneity means that, when observed on a large scale, the universe has a roughly uniform distribution of matter. In other words, the overall structure and composition of the universe are consistent across different regions when considering large enough volumes.
The Cosmological Principle serves as a foundational assumption in the development of many cosmological models and theories, including the Big Bang Theory. The idea that the universe is isotropic and homogeneous simplifies the mathematical descriptions of the universe’s evolution and allows cosmologists to develop models that apply uniformly across the vast expanse of space.

Observations of the large-scale distribution of galaxies and the cosmic microwave background radiation provide empirical support for the Cosmological Principle. These observations show that, on the largest observable scales, the universe exhibits a remarkable degree of isotropy and homogeneity.

It’s important to note that the Cosmological Principle applies to the universe on the largest scales, where the average properties are considered. On smaller scales, such as those within galaxies or galaxy clusters, variations and structures do exist, but these are expected and consistent with the overall homogeneity and isotropy when averaged over sufficiently large volumes.

Question 207

Explain the idea of the univerasality of laws

Answer 207

The Cosmological Principle is a foundational concept in cosmology that asserts the large-scale homogeneity and isotropy of the universe on cosmological scales. In simpler terms, it states that, when viewed on a sufficiently large scale, the universe looks roughly the same in all directions (isotropy) and has a similar structure at every point in space (homogeneity). This principle is fundamental to the understanding of the overall structure and behavior of the universe.

The Cosmological Principle can be broken down into two main components:

Isotropy:

Isotropy refers to the idea that the universe appears the same in all directions when observed on a large scale. No particular direction in space is preferred over any other. This implies that the universe doesn’t have a specific “center” or “edge” on these large scales.
Homogeneity:

Homogeneity means that, when observed on a large scale, the universe has a roughly uniform distribution of matter. In other words, the overall structure and composition of the universe are consistent across different regions when considering large enough volumes.
The Cosmological Principle serves as a foundational assumption in the development of many cosmological models and theories, including the Big Bang Theory. The idea that the universe is isotropic and homogeneous simplifies the mathematical descriptions of the universe’s evolution and allows cosmologists to develop models that apply uniformly across the vast expanse of space.

Observations of the large-scale distribution of galaxies and the cosmic microwave background radiation provide empirical support for the Cosmological Principle. These observations show that, on the largest observable scales, the universe exhibits a remarkable degree of isotropy and homogeneity.

It’s important to note that the Cosmological Principle applies to the universe on the largest scales, where the average properties are considered. On smaller scales, such as those within galaxies or galaxy clusters, variations and structures do exist, but these are expected and consistent with the overall homogeneity and isotropy when averaged over sufficiently large volumes.

User
What is the ‘univerasality of laws’
ChatGPT
The “universality of laws” refers to the idea that the fundamental laws of physics are the same throughout the entire observable universe and apply uniformly in all regions. This concept is closely related to the assumption of isotropy and homogeneity on cosmological scales, as embodied by the Cosmological Principle.

Key aspects of the universality of laws include:

Consistency Across Space and Time:

The fundamental physical laws, such as those described by theories like general relativity and quantum mechanics, are assumed to be consistent across the vast reaches of the universe and throughout its entire history. This means that the same physical processes and principles that govern phenomena on Earth are believed to apply equally to distant galaxies and other cosmic structures.
Homogeneity and Isotropy:

The assumption of the universality of laws is closely tied to the homogeneity and isotropy of the universe on large scales. It implies that the basic laws of physics do not vary from one region of the universe to another, and there are no privileged directions or locations where the laws behave differently.
Cosmological Implications:

The idea of the universality of laws has significant implications for our understanding of the cosmos. It allows cosmologists to apply known physical principles to model the large-scale structure and evolution of the universe. The assumption of universal laws underlies the development of cosmological models, such as the Big Bang Theory, which seeks to describe the entire universe based on a consistent set of physical laws.
Empirical Support:

Observational evidence, such as the cosmic microwave background radiation and the large-scale distribution of galaxies, supports the assumption of the universality of laws. These observations indicate a remarkable degree of isotropy and homogeneity on the largest scales, consistent with the application of fundamental physical laws throughout the observable universe.
While the universality of laws is a foundational assumption in cosmology and physics, it is important to acknowledge that our understanding of the universe is not complete. In certain extreme conditions, such as in the vicinity of black holes or during the earliest moments of the universe, scientists may need to develop more comprehensive theories that integrate quantum mechanics and general relativity to fully describe physical processes. Nevertheless, the assumption of the universality of laws has proven to be a powerful and successful principle in our exploration of the cosmos.

Question 208

What is the Hubble Effect and how does it give evidential support to the BBT

Answer 208

This was the discovery of the speed o f galaxies moving away from one another as measured by the basic background radiation. This is argued to support the BBT on thie basis that evidence of outward movement from a singular point would indicate that there had to be a cause for this - and the BB could be this cause

Question 209

Explain the universality of laws as a foundational principle for the big bang theory

Answer 209

The universality of laws is a key principle in the Big Bang theory, asserting that fundamental physical laws apply uniformly throughout the universe. This consistency allows scientists to understand the evolution of the cosmos from its hot, dense beginnings to the present day. The idea relies on constants, like the speed of light, having consistent values across space. This principle is crucial for the predictability and success of scientific models explaining the universe’s origin and development.

Question 210

How does the red shift support the big bang theory

Answer 210

Finding from physics. As light moves away from an individual, it shifts away from the blue end of the spectrum and towards the red end. The observation of red light within the universe gives scientific basis to suggest that the universe is moving outwards and away from a central point. It has been observed that this movement away from a central point is speeding up in expansion rate. This observation has been used to support the BBT

Question 211

When was the Gaia hypothesis first posited

Answer 211

The 1970s

Question 212

Who put it forward

Answer 212

James Lovelock and Lyn Marguilis

Question 213

What is it named after

Answer 213

The Greek Goddess Gaia, who represented Earth

Question 214

What does the theory posit

Answer 214

Posits the idea that the universe is self sustaining. Rests on the ideas of the self sustaining nature of various aspects of the natural world as functioning in such a way as to make the world able to sustain itself. Examples of this include the current global temperature, seawater salinity and oxygen in the atmosphere

Question 215

How was the theory of evolution first put forward

Answer 215

By biologist Charles Darwin in his 1859 work On the Origin of Species

Question 216

Explain how his theory of evolution by natural selection came to be

Answer 216

While on a voyage on the HMS Beagle, Darwin noted variation among the beaks on finches on the coast of South America. He observed that depending on their location on the island, the shape and size of their beaks varied. This gave them an advantage regarding their food and the food that was available at that particular part of the island

He argued that within species we can observe genetic mutations. He argued these genetic mutations are advantageous, such as the shape of the beak of an animal leading to easier food access. This enables with the genetic mutation to thrive, survive and procreate, passing on the mutation. Those who do not have this mutation will not thrive, survive and procreate, meaning they will die without passing on their genes. In this way the mutation will then become part of the genetic make up of the entire species

This is known as natural selection or survival of the fittest. Seems to be observable across many species, leading to wide acceptance of the theory in the scientific community due to the large amount of empirical evidence supporting the theory

This is the dominant theory of how mankind and animals have come to be within scientific thought, and is the scientific theory which has become juxtaposed with creationist theories

Question 217

How does Dawkins counter the idea that God is the creator of life the The Blind Watchmaker

Answer 217

Says that if he was responsible then he must be blind or cruel in order to account for the level of suffering experienced in the world

Question 218

What impact does Dawkins think science has had on religion

Answer 218

He thinks that religion has killed God. In his view the developments of science which have been made around the world and how it came to be mean that there is no need for religion or belief in God and he therefore believes individuals should no longer take part in this

Question 219

Who are creationists

Answer 219

Those Christians who have rejected the theory of evolution altogether

Question 220

What creation theme will we be focused on in this course

Answer 220

The ideas within Christianity regarding the creation of the world, as told within the Book of Genesis

Question 221

What is creationism as a creation theme

Answer 221

Creationists are individuals who have rejected scientific cosmologies about how the world came to be and have instead held to a literal interpretation of the account of creation in Genesis

Question 222

Generally speaking, creationists have a variety of beliefs, including

Answer 222

Scientists who posit evolution are basing their views on a few assumptions. A common arguement is that creationists do the same. They are both basing their beliefs on assumptions

Argue that scientists posit the evolution of one organism to another, which they argue is based on assumption and has never been wholly proved

Some argue that fossils are explained by Biblical events like the flood

Some view evolution as a theory being so unlikely that it is difficult to make the assumption or leap of faith in order to believe it

They believe God and the Bible are infallible. They can therefore neither make mistakes nor be mistaken. In their view if science and the Bible are at odds it is the science rather than the scripture that is mistaken

Question 223

What are the two main streams of creationist belief

Answer 223

Young earth creationists and old earth creationists

Question 224

Explain the young earth creationist position

Answer 224

Believe in a wholly literal interpretation of the Genesis story. They believe that the creation account in Genesis is literal - a historical account of the origin of the world. They are biblical literalists, believing that the world was created literally by God in six days, resting on the 7th

Science posits that the earth is around 13.8 billion years old. Young earth creationists believe that it is 6000 years old. Their system of dating is based on the Bible rather than any process of scientific testing. They believe all humans can trace their lineage back to Adam and Eve, who then populated the earth. They believe God created all the animals on earth as they are observed and were subsequently named by Adam

Question 225

Explain old earth creationists

Answer 225

Take a slightly less literal view of creation. Believe the earth is 4.5 billion years old. They hold that the six day creation story in Genesis is true, however, they translate the original hebrew word ‘yom’ as ‘day’, therefore in this view they believe that rather than a literal day, the Genesis creation story represents a series of bursts of creative energy, or periods of creation, rather than a literal creation week

They also reject evolution. They believe God created every species with intent. They believe that any new species which have appeared that are genetically different have appeared as they are, fully formed. Some do accept forms of evolution, but this is limited. They believe that it could have occured among ‘lower species’, but certainly not within the human species. They believe that these lesser beings, prehuman humanoids, which are evidenced by archeaological excavation, are without souls. They argue that Adam was the first human God imbued with a soul. They also believe the flood was a historical event, but a localised event occuring in only one geographical area

Question 226

Evaluate old earth creationists

Answer 226

No more scientific evidence or basis with old earth creationism than within young earth creationism. There is no current scientific basis for new species appearing on earth. There is no way to empirically or substantially state that prehuman humanoids were without souls. To posit that the flood was a local event, while potentially appearing more reasonably appealing, contradicts the bible which they interpret literally

Question 227

Why do creationists place so much emphasis on the fact that evolution is technically just a theory

Answer 227

Because the theory contradicts the biblical principle of man being made in the image of God intentionally as described in Genesis 1:27

Question 228

Genesis 1: 27

Answer 228

So God created mankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them, male and female he created them

Question 229

Explain how Henry Morris is a good example of a creationist

Answer 229

Heralded as one the founders of the 20th century creationist movement. Emphasises the role of the Bible as being the infallible word of god and argues that it is the yardstick against which the accuracy of science should be measured

Stated that his personal belief was that the Bible was infallible, the words and commandments of God and wholly perfect - including the story of creation

Rejects the idea that dinosaurs existed before humans. Instead believes the two coexisted. Argues that the dinosaurs are the creatures referred to as ‘behemoths’ within the Book of Job

Question 230

What is creation science

Answer 230

The idea that we can use science to support biblical claims

Question 231

Give an example of a theist who accepts evolution while retaining belief in God

Answer 231

Teilhard de Chardin

Question 232

Explain his views

Answer 232

His ideas have largely been rejected by the creationist community, but were popularised within the 1950s and 1960s. Believed and argued that religion and science were compatible. Believed that evolution was the key to science as well as religious belief, and viewed science as being part of the process of evolution, which he believes has a religious purpose. In his view the process of human evolution is leading us towards us eventually being able to evolve into an ‘omega point’ - a being that is morally perfect, like Jesus

Question 233

Another example of a theist who is also a scientist is John Polkinghorne…

Answer 233

Anglican Priest and theoretical physicist. Argues that science and religion cannot dictate to one another what is truth and what each should believe. He thinks both involve some form of a leap of faith: faith is just as much of an important part of science as it is of religion

Question 234

There are even theists who use science to argue against the theory of evolution. This is where we encounter ideas such as irreducible complexity and intelligent design…

Answer 234

Anyone using the scientific method to look at the universe will observe the same thing: the universe as an entity is incredibly, undescribably complex. The mechanisms by which the universe governs its contents are hugely complicated and there continues to be layers and layers of complexity discovered. Appears if there was even one miniscule level of difference then the world as it currently appears would not be possible

This is a religious theory which attempts to provide scientific legitimacy

This is a belief that it is wrong to remove God completely from theories about the origins of the universe. It is argued by the proponents of these ideas that theories such as evolution and the big bang theory are lacking something. Questions individuals might have about these theories are proposed to find their answers within the theory of intelligent design

Question 235

Biochemist Michael Behe published his ideas about irreduceable complexity and intelligent design in his 1996 text ‘Darwin’s Black Box’

Answer 235

Argued that modern developments in biochemistry have revealed facets and facts about life which Darwin was not privy to when writing his evolutionary theory. Argues these new developments have challenged Darwinian theory and in fact point towards the design of an intelligent God

Argues that in the time of Darwin we were not aware of anything smaller than a single cell. Modern science has developed to the point where we know about things smaller than the cell, such as the atom. Behe says that this brings Darwin’s arguements into question

Argues that if one observes the universe one can see evidence everywhere of irreduceable complexity. All the parts of the world appear to work in such a way that if you removed even one part of the world of one facet of how the world works it would not function in such a way as to facilitate life

Question 236

What analogy does he use to communicate these ideas

Answer 236

The idea of a mousetrap. They are made for a purpose and are made up of many different parts, big and small. However, if you removed even one of these parts, so much as a screw, it would cease to work as it was intended to and would not fulfil its purpose. It is irreducibly complex in that the removal of even one part will stop it from working

Argues the same is true of the world. For example the process of the clotting of blood within humans beings is an incredibly small and relatively unnoticeable feature. However, it requires the interaction of many different biological systems. And if it was removed from the biology of humans beings then there would be issues with the functioning of the human body. It is necessary for a healthy human. He argues that in this way humans are irreduceably complex

The human eye is also used as an example of a part of the human body which supports the theory of irreduceable complexity; it should be noted that the human eye itself was something that Darwin conceded was a flaw in his theory as the incredible complexity of the human eye seems highly improbable to have come from light sensitivity in smaller beings

The reason that Behe gives for this irreducable complexity is that it has to be evidence of intelligent design. The ways in which the world and the human body work appear to the experience of human beings to be entirely too complicated to be the result of chance; therefore, he argues it was the result of the intelligent design of an intelligent God. Strong links to the design arguement

Question 237

Weaknesses of this arguement…

Answer 237

Many argue it is not a good use of science and is not wholly scientific theory as it is posited

God cannot be tested empirically; therefore all that can be proved is that life is incredibly biologically complicated

Employs the god of the gaps theory, which is considered to be weak philosophy

Does not necessarily point towards the traditional Judaeo-Christian God, as Behe believes

Question 238

Define immortality

Answer 238

The indefinite continuation of a person’s existence, even after death

Question 239

What three models can we break immortality down into

Answer 239

The survival of the astral body resembling the physical body

The immortality of the immaterial soul (incorporeal existence)

The resurrection of the body, with the resurrected body not resembling the previous one

Question 240

How do dualists and monists/materialists differ in how they view life after death

Answer 240

Dualists believe souls to exist and survive the death of the body, whereas materialists/monists believe mental activity is nothing but cerebral activity and thus death brings a total end to a person’s existence

Question 241

Why is personal identity a crucial issue relating to life after feath

Answer 241

If we hope to survive death then we want to be sure that the person who survives death is the same person that existed before death. For religions that postulate some sort of final judgement this is crucial: if God is to be just then the person rewarded or punished in the afterlife must be the same person whose deeds determine the outcome

Question 242

Explain the Buddhist notion of samsara

Answer 242

The idea that all life is in a constant cycle of death and rebirth. When someone dies their karmic energy passes into another form. This cycle is something to escape from

Question 243

Explain the Buddhist notion of karma

Answer 243

Believe that through good actions such as ethical conduct and by developing concentration and wisdom, they hope to gain enlightenment and produce a better future for themselves. Good actions result in better rebirth

Actions in previous lives determine the form you will take in the current life. Being born human is seen as a rare opportunity for working towards ending this cycle of samsara. This escape is called nirvana or enlightenment

Question 244

What do they believe happens once nirvana is achieved

Answer 244

The enlightened individual physically dies and they will no longer be reborn

The Buddha taught that when nirvana is achieved, buddhists can see the world as it really is

Some Buddhists believe that enlightened individuals can choose to be reborn in order to help others become enlightened. Others believe that when nirvana is achieved, the cycle of samsara, all suffering and further existence for that individual ends

Question 245

Explain the Buddhist notion of annica

Answer 245

Believe that nothing is permanent and everything changes. This means that everlasting souls or eternal gods cannot exist.

Question 246

Explain their concept of annata

Answer 246

No permanent soul or self. Because there is no unchanging essence or soul, Buddhists often talk about karmic energy being reborn rather than souls

Question 247

What do Buddhists believe about life after death

Answer 247

Believe in it because the Buddha taught we are reborn an infinite amount of times until we achieve nirvana.

The Buddha taught his disciples not to fear death. This has been interpreted by Buddhists as suggesting that if they live well their rebirth will be good

Question 248

Explain the Hindu notion of samsara

Answer 248

They cycle of life and death. When a person dies their atman is born in another body

Some believe reincarnation happens directly after death, while others believe the atman may exist in other realms. Hindus believe it may enter swarg or narak for a period before reincarnation

Question 249

Explain the Hindu notion of Karma/intentional action

Answer 249

Good or bad actions in life lead to positive or negative merit, which determines the atman’s rebirth

Believe humans may be reborn in animal form, and that rebirth from human to animal form only occurs if an atman has repeatedly failed to learn lessons in human form

Question 250

Explain the Hindu concept of Moksha

Answer 250

Living life well and according to scriptures will eventually lead to moksha. Some Hindu scriptures describe moksha as the atman being absorbed within the Brahman, from where each atman is believed to originate. Other Hindu scriptures describe moksha as living within the realm of a personal God

Question 251

Why do Hindus believe in life after death

Answer 251

Ancient Hindu scriptures refer to the atman being reborn many times…

Question 252

Bhagavad Gita 2:22

Answer 252

As a person casts of worn out clothes and puts on new ones, so does the atman cast off worn out bodies and enter new ones

Question 253

There are two main beliefs about what happens after moksha

Answer 253

Some Hindus believe that the atman is absorbed in the Brahman because the two are one and the same

Other Hindus believe that the atman and brahman remain separate after moksha. They believe that the atman will be the presence of brahman, as a personal God, but will remain unique and individual

Question 254

Do Christians believe JC’s resurrection was physical or spiritual

Answer 254

Physical. Gospel acccouts show him with spear marks on his side and the nail marks on his feet and hands

Question 255

What did Jesus teach would happen on the Day of Judgement

Answer 255

That all people would be resurrected before judgement and then be sent to heaven or hell

Question 256

In Catholic theology it is taught that the resurrected body differs from the earthly body in several respects

Answer 256

It becomes immortal

It becomes impassable (it cannot suffer)

The resurrected body will have different degrees of glory (status)

It is ruled by the soul

The concept of a purely spiritual resurrected is rejected

Question 257

Difference between resurrection and recreation

Answer 257

Strictly understood says that this very body will be resurrected, brought back from the dead

A duplicate of this body, perhaps made of exactly the same kind of matter, perhaps made of something different, will be created

Question 258

How is 1 Corinthians 15 important for the debate between resurrection and recreation

Answer 258

Paul talks of ‘resurrection’ of the body, but then said that this body will be a heavenly body rather than this earthly body

He compares this body to a perishable seed that will be raised imperishable

It is unclear whether he thinks this very body will be resurrected and then changed or whether something completely new, but qualitatively identical will be created

Question 259

Issues with resurrection

Answer 259

To resurrect this body God would need to ensure material continuity between the body that died and the one that is resurrected. This would mean reassembling the actual atoms that made up my body at the time of death. This is neither logically incoherent nor impossible for an omnipotent being. However, to do it with more than one body could prove much more difficult, because when I die some of the atoms in my body used to belong to other people when they died. Making two bodies out of the same atoms would be logically impossible

If we resurrected exactly as we were when we died, we will die again! Whatever state they were in is what caused us to die, and so this problem would need to be fixed for us to continue living

If my perishable body is instantly changed into an imperishable one, how is it the same body at all. What age will it be resurrected as. Will the body need to be maintained, do we need to eat? What about miscarried feotuses and babies as Christians believe life begins at conception. If we change appearance how do we recognise each other

Question 260

Describe Hick and his replica theory

Answer 260

Sought to defend the general Christian view of the resurrection of the body after death and presents a thought experiment of replica theory to demonstrate that this is logically possible

Hick is a monist and suggests that the body and soul are one and inseparable

Rejects the idea that the soul survives the body at the point of death. What lives after death is a replica or duplicate

The replica comes to life in heaven as an exact copy of the person who lived and died on earth

God creates this replica to live on after death

If the body and soul are one, then when the body dies the soul also dies

However, since the body rots away and its atoms become part of other things, it is not possible for the individual to be resurrected with their body and identity

Instead, what is resurrected is a perfect replica which retains the individual’s identity as a unit of body and mind

Question 261

Give two examples of dualists

Answer 261

Plato and Aristotle

Question 262

Give an example of a soft materialist

Answer 262

Swinburne

Question 263

Give an example of a hard materialist

Answer 263

Dawkins

Question 264

Explain Plato’s idea of opposing properties

Answer 264

Said the universe contains opposed properties, every quality comes into being from its own opposite. Something is big only because other things are small. If qualities depend on the existence of the opposite then life must come from death, life must come from death

We exist in a physical universe so there must be a metaphysical one, since this world contains physical things the metaphysical one must contain pure ideas or forms

Question 265

Explain Plato’s idea of the soul

Answer 265

Argues the perfect idea for a person lies within the soul, this is the counter part of the body and brain. The soul is pre-existent and immortal and it is embodied in the physical matter of the brain while the person is alive, it is a bridge between the physical world and the world of forms. At death the soul returns to the world of forms and contemplates them until it is reincarnated into the world

Question 266

Explain Plato’s idea of knowledge

Answer 266

Knowledge is remembering what the soul already knows from its contemplation of pure ideas. The soul encased in the human body has to remember what it already knows. Knowledge is the uncovering of universal truths like geometry and mathematics

Question 267

Explain Plato’s idea of Meno’s Slave

Answer 267

Our intuitions are evidence of knowledge gained before birth, Plato thinks this proves our souls have lived once before. Uses the example of Socrates interviewing an uneducated slave boy and asking him math and logic puzzles. The slave can answer these despite having no formal education. Plato claims this is evidence of prior knowledge - that humans possess knowledge and skills that show that they have lived before

Question 268

Explain Plato’s ideas on the nature of the soul

Answer 268

The body is material and temporary. The soul is the essential immaterial aspect. The soul is temporarily united with the body but can leave and move on. Plato is therefore a dualist and sees the soul and body as separate

Question 269

Explain Plato’s tripartite view of the soul

Answer 269

Our souls are driven by emotion, desire and reason. Reason controls our emotions and desires to keep us in check. Reason is the highest and most superior of these three elements

Reason - allows us to gain knowledge and know right from wrong

Emotion - Allows us to love and inspires courage

Desire - Necessary to look after our physical needs

Question 270

Explain Aristotle’s ideas on the soul

Answer 270

The animating principle of the body - its formal cause, it is what makes a physical body a living body

As the animating principle the soul is the principle by which we know and understand, by which we develop character and skills

The soul enables us to grasp eternal truths, rationalise our sense experience and understand universal and abstract ideas such as goodness

A was a dualist because he believed the soul was a substance

The physical body is in a continuous state of change but the substance remains the same. The continuing identity or essence remains the same, and this is the soul

Not just an invisible part of a person, it includes the matter and structure of the body

The soul gives living things essence, it distinguishes a living thing from a dead thing

The soul and the body cannot be separated

For Aristotle the ideas and abilities given to us by our soul are grounded in the world, rejects Plato’s idea of a metaphysical world

Therefore when the body dies, its animation is lost, so the soul dies also

Question 271

Define monism/materialism

Answer 271

Humans are only made of one substance - the physical body - often reject the idea of life after death

Question 272

Difference between soft and hard materialism

Answer 272

Both think that human beings are only made from one type of substance, hards reject the idea of life after death whereas softs can sometimes allow for this possibility

Question 273

Explain Dawkins idea of hard materialism

Answer 273

Dawkins believed the only survival that can be identified in connection with life forms, including ourselves is genetic

‘Life is just bytes and bytes of information’

The mind and physical brain are not separate, they are the same

Science can explain that when we feel an emotion, there is a feeling and physical reaction in the brain, mental events and physical events in the brain are identical

The chemical reactions do not just cause the mental events, they are the mental events. Therefore, there is no way in which the self or the consciousness could leave the physical body

The consciousness is physical and nothing more - when the body dies the consciousness ends, the consciousness and the illusion of being an individual is just the product of our genes working together to enhance survival

Says that belief in the soul and belief in God are by products of blind evolutionary processes and are also the products of our unwillingness to contemplate the inevitability of extinction after death

Despite his rejection of life after death he says there is still a need to surround death with ritual and ceremony

Question 274

Strengths of Dawkins’ position

Answer 274

A convincing application of evolutionary biology that many find persuasive

The concept of memes is easy to understand. The notion that ideas replicate is an interesting extension of the fact that genes replicate themselves

Question 275

Weaknesses of Dawkins’ position

Answer 275

To argue that evolution is blind ignores the fact that it obeys the absolute laws of biology and chemistry. The existence of laws require explanation

If there is no meaning or purpose in the universe then why should we meaningfully reflect on what we have achieved

To say that evolution serves no function except the survival of genes assumes we have no higher order or purpose

Wouldn’t an organism with actual rather than imagined consciousness have more evolutionary benefit and survival value

Question 276

Explain Swinburne’s soft materialism

Answer 276

Disagreed with hard materialism, as he claimed his sensations are more than brain activity and they could not be measured by a brain scan.

‘Hard materialism seems obviously to be false. There really are events which humans experience and which they can consequently know about better than anyone else who studies their behaviour or inspects their brain

Soft materialists accept that not all characteristics are physical ones

They believe that consciousness is more than a brain process and that the mind and body are related and do not act independently of one another, however, the body often displays inner emotions

For example, a physical symptom like sleep deprivation can result from something troubling the mind. Or how the brain can have an effect on the body by causing it to do something

They state there is nothing we can do independently of our bodies and our personal identity must involve the body

‘A person is the same thing as his body (and the brain is the same thing as his mind)’

Swinburne also termed this property dualism

Question 277

List some common features of NDEs

Answer 277

Out of body experiences

Peace

Overwhelming presence of God

Bright light at the end of a tunnel

Ineffability

Seeing or meeting people who have died

Review of a person’s life

Question 278

What similarities did Moody say NDEs have

Answer 278

Being aware of your own death

Peace and happiness

Out of body experience

Sense of going somewhere dark and tunnel like

Encountering a presence or hearing a voice

Intense feeling of love

Meeting past relatives

Reflection of whole life

Seeing or being surrounded by light

Seeing beautiful colours

Question 279

List the 5 steps to any scientific methodology

Answer 279

Observation

Hypothesis

Experiment

Law

Theory

Question 280

Explain the relationship between Aristotle and science

Answer 280

Recognising as giving the earliest account of scientific enquiry in the western world, one which embraced observation and reasoning about the natural world.

In the ‘Prior and Posterior Analytics’, A reflects on the aims and methods of enquiry into nature. A number of features can be identified which most consider to be essential to science. For A, empiricism through careful observation is the starting point, though the aim is not merely the recording of facts. A thinks science is a body of properly arranged knowledge or learning - the empirical facts, but also their ordering and display are of crucial importance

Question 281

Explain fideism

Answer 281

Fideism (from the Latin ‘fides’ or ‘faith’) is the view that religious belief depends on faith or revelation, rather than reason, intellect or natural theology. It objects to evidentialism, the notion that no belief should be held unless it is supported by evidence. As a result, it holds that theology may contain logical contradictions without apology

Teaches that rational or scientific arguements for God are irrelevant, and having nothing to do with the truth of Christian theology because Christian theology teaches that people are saved by faith in the Christian God (trust in the empirically unprovable) and if the Christian God’s existence can be either empirically or logically proven then to this extent faith becomes unnecessary

If Christian theology is true, no immediate proof of God is possible

William James established a set of conditions under which it is reasonable to believe in the absence of proof. He termed this is a ‘genuine option’, which he concluded must be ‘live’, ‘forced’ and ‘momentous’. James claimed that theism may be no more rational than atheism or agnosticism, but it is not less rational either

Question 282

What is critical rationalism

Answer 282

Philosophy developed by Popper in the mid 20th century. Based on the naturalistic idea that society has developed through a process of solving problems using trial and error

Natural and social sciences have been born out of this problem solving and progressed by subjecting potential theories to vigorous testing and criticism. Falsified theories are rejected

Popper calls for a society conducive to problem solving, that permits bold theorising followed by unfettered criticism, a society where there is genuine possibility for change in the face of criticism: an open society

Critical rationalists claim that scientific theories and any other claims to knowledge can and should be rationally criticised, and (if they have empirical content) can and should be subjected to texts that may falsify them

Question 283

Explain Barber’s idea of compatability

Answer 283

Wrote the most influential model of the relationship between religion and science

1) Conflict - holds that science and religion are in perpetual and principle conflict. If science is right, religion is wrong and vice versa

2) Independence - States that religion and science can both be true so long as they are kept in their separate domains. Both can be true simultaneously so long as they respect their limits and stay true to their area. Science tells us how and religion tells us why and any other use of either is inappropriate. This idea is favoured by accommodationists who believe religion can be reconciled with evolution. Holds that science and religion explore separate domains that ask distinct questions

3) Dialogue - Proposed a mutualistic relationship. Science and religion are conversation partners in the areas to which they respectively claim knowledge. Unlike independence, dialogue assumes that there is common ground between both fields, perhaps in their presuppositions, methods and concepts. For instance, the Christian doctine of creation may have encouraged science by assuming that creation (being the product of a designer) is both intelligable and orderly, so one can expect there are laws that can be discovered

4) Intergration - Identifies three forms of integration: natural theology, theology of nature and process philosophy

Natural theology proposes there is obvious scientific evidence in nature of God. Science is used to provide a basis for belief in God - God’s existence can be inferred from nature

Theology of nature says that we have scientific evidence and religion interprets this. Starts from a religious framework and examines how this can enrich and even revise findings of the sciences. Takes it as a given that God exists and created the world. Mechanisms of how God created, insights into who God is and what his purpose may be in creation may all be augmented or revised by scientific exploration

Process philosophy says that the reason nature changes is due to God. A God that is the source of order but also changeable. Views nature as a dynamic and interdependent reality. Each event of change has two aspect, an inner and outer reality. God is not omnipotent, not immutable and undergoes change with the world. God is the source of order novelty and complexity but not in a deterministic manner

Question 284

How are miracles commonly defined

Answer 284

Often described as unexpected violations of natural law that serve a higher purpose and have religious significance

Question 285

Give an example of a miracle

Answer 285

In 1998, Monica Besra had a lump growing in her abdomen due to tuberculosis despite the fact that she had been intermittently taking the medication her family could afford. Too weak and ill to undergo necessary surgery

When Besra was praying in the Missionaries of Charity chapel she saw a light emenating from a photo of Mother Teresa. Later, a medallion that had touched Teresa’s body was placed on her abdomen and a sister said a prayer while asking Teresa for help. She awoke the next day to find her tumor had disappeared. Medical exams showed the abdominal mass was no longer there and the doctors agreed she no longer required surgery

Theologians and medical experts who delved into the case found there was no earthly explanation for the recovery. The cure was attributed to the miraculous intervention of Mother Teresa and the miracle was recognised by the Vatican in 2002

Question 286

Explain Hume’s idea that natural laws disprove miracles

Answer 286

Says a miracle is a violation of a natural law. We suppose that a law of nature pertains only when we have extensive and exceptionless experience of a certain phenomenon. Hume says the evidence for a miracle, even when provided by the strongest possible testimony, will always be outweighed by the evidence for the law of nature which is supposed to have been violated

For a miracle to be called a miracle it must be something that never happens in the natural world - therefore they do not happen

Question 287

What kind of things does Hume thinks undermines people’s critical faculties when they experience miracles

Answer 287

Any number of passional influences, such as enthusiasm, wishful thinking or a sense of a mission driven by good intentions

Question 288

Explain Hume’s idea of unreliable testimony

Answer 288

Thinks we need to proportion our certainty regarding any matter to the strength of the evidence. No denying that testimony may be very strong when it is given by numerous highly reliable and independent eyewitnesses

Hume insists that no testimony can be adequate to establish the occurance of a miracle. The problem that arises is not so much with the reliability of the witnesses as with the nature of what is being reported

People are either deceived or trying to deceive

Claimed people have a natural tendency to look for marvellous events and to believe in the supernatural and paranormal - this desire can colour events

Question 289

How did Aquinas define miracles in summa theologica

Answer 289

Those things which are done by divine power apart from the order generally followed in things

Question 290

What three categories of miracles did Aquinas propose

Answer 290

Something done by God that nature can never do - in the Bible God makes the moon and the sun stand still so he can defeat his enemies

Something done by God that nature can do, but not in that sequence or connection - seeing after being blind

Something done by God which is usually done by nature but is beyond natural principles - a fever instantly going or a broken leg being instantly healed

Question 291

Strengths of Aquinas’ ideas

Answer 291

Allows for a range of possible events which we could call miracles

Does not limit miracles to being a violation of natural law and so is identified by God’s intervention

Question 292

Weaknesses of Aquinas’ ideas

Answer 292

Events such as the sun rising every morning which may have been previously dubbed a miracle can now be easily explained due to our knowledge of the solar system

While Aquinas claims miracles are evidence of the divine, many of them can be explained scientifically or otherwise

Aquinas suggests an interventionist God who only acts on certain, seemingly random occasions - why does he not stop evil and suffering

Question 293

How does science challenge miracles

Answer 293

The challenge from science is that miracles would break scientific laws so therefore cannot happen

Events regarded as miracles stem from a lack of knowledge

Spinoza formed an early arguement against miracles from science

P1: Miracles violate the laws of nature

P2: By definition natural laws are immutable (they never change)

P3: Immutable laws cannot be violated, otherwise there can be no basis for science

C: Therefore miracles are impossible

The critical premise is P2, Spinoza says we know this by universal observation

For instance, we can all observe the laws of gravity and there are no known exceptions. However, by defintion miracles are contrary to scientific observation, science works by dealing with what is general and repeatable, and by their nature miracles are not general or repeatable

The idea of the God of the gaps no longer applies no we have science

Question 294

Strengths of this arguement

Answer 294

Science can use reliable methods to test miracle claims

Spinoza’s arguement is powerful as it shows that if miracles were true there could be no basis for science

The God of the Gaps idea gives a convincing account of where miracle accounts come from

Miracles are by definition singular and unrepeatable, therefore weak evidence in comparison to scientific evidence

Question 295

Weaknesses of this arguement

Answer 295

The creation of the universe was a singular event, yet is investigated by science, so sigularity is a poor reason for rejection

If miracles really do happen then science is useless as it has no methodologies to test them

Rejection of the God of the Gaps misses the point, they have context, purpose and meaning. They are demonstrations of Gods power and love

Spinoza suggests scientific laws are immutable, but science cannot prove this

Question 296

Two thinkers who argue for science in the science v religion debate

Answer 296

Dawkins and Darwin

Question 297

Two thinkers who argue for religion

Answer 297

Behe

Morris

Question 298

What did Darwin think his theory of evolution had done to Paley’s design arguement

Answer 298

The old arguement from design in nature, as given by Paley, which formerly seemed to me so conclusive, fails now that the law of natural selection has been discovered

Question 299

List the ways evolution is a challenge to religion

Answer 299

The authority of the Bible as the revealed word of God is diminished

Appears humans are not the supremre creation of God after all, it was chance

We have not been created imageo dei but evolved by chance

Distinction between humans and animals are blurred - we don’t have a unique place

Humans were not deliberately created in a man made form

Very unlikely souls developed through evolution

Adam and Eve were not real historical people, the Fall did not happen - this questions good and evil in the world

The concept of God as a designer is challenged - wonders of the natural world are random and so the teleological arguement is undermined

Humans do not have a special relationship with God and have not been saved by Jesus

Question 300

What key premise of creation themes did evolution undermine

Answer 300

That design is always the product of an intelligent agent

Question 301

Give a quote from Dawkins about the God of the gaps

Answer 301

To explain something by invoking a supernatural designer is to explain precisely nothing, for it leaves unexplained the origins of the designer

Question 302

Where did the term meme first appear

Answer 302

In his first book, The Selfish Gene (1976)