Approaches Flashcards
What is Wundt’s nickname in the psychology community?
Father of psychology
Which research method became the preferred way of studying human behaviour because of Wundt (hint: not introspection; it’s one we learned in research methods)?
Lab experiments
When and where did Wundt set up the first Psychology laboratory?
Leipzig, Germany in the 1870s
Wundt believed that the human mind could be studied scientifically. Scientifically in which ways?
Introspection and structuralism
Wundt’s work paved the way for a later approach which studies internal mental processes. Which one?
Cognitive approach
What is structuralism?
Breaking down behaviours (such as perception and sensation) into their basic elements
What is introspection?
A systematic analysis of our own conscious experience of a stimulus
Describe what participants do in a study of introspection.
Wundt would ask people to focus on an everyday object (e.g. a metronome) and look inwards to analyse it in terms of its component parts e.g. noticing sensations and feelings and images. Therefore, they would break down their thoughts about an object into separate elements and report it in a systematic way (in the order that the thoughts occurred).
Explain how Wundt made his research as scientific as possible by giving examples of how his research was:
Controlled - He used the same carefully controlled stimuli for each participant (e.g. Metronome), took place in a lab so controlled environment
Objective - Used standardised instructions to prevent investigator effects, he made accurate measurements as a result of using controlled stimuli, standardised procedure) every participant did the same thing via introspection)
Replicable - As a result of all the above, his procedure was replicable)others could repeat it in the exact same way to check the reliability of findings)
Introspection is still used today. How?
Griffiths
It is still used today to gain access to cognitive processes e.g. Griffiths (1994) used introspection to study the cognitive processes of fruit machine gamblers. He asked them to ‘think aloud’ whilst playing a fruit machine into a microphone on their lapel. They found that gamblers used more irrational verbalisations. This has led important theories and treatments for gambling addictions. This demonstrates introspection’s value as one way that mental processes can be investigated (supports its external validity).
Why was Watson critical of introspection?
Watson was highly critical of introspection’s focus on ‘private’ mental processes, arguing that such processes couldn’t be objectively measured. He argued that Psychology is only truly scientific when it restricts itself only to studying phenomena that can be directly observed and measured. This led to the behaviourist approach and the emergence of Psychology as a science.
How is Wundt’s research not entirely scientific?
We can’t directly see peoples thoughts so we can’t measure them
Show the process of how Psychology became a science, beginning with Wundt and ending with the use of scientific methods to study behaviour
Wundt’s idea that we can systematically analyse our own concious experience of a stimulus
Watson argued that we can’t objectively measure mental processes and therefore that introspection isn’t scientific
Empiricism - Watson suggested that all behaviour is a result of observation and experience alone (we learn behaviour)
Empiricism was a more scientific approach to studying psychological phenomena as it is argued that the cause of behaviour was experience/observation and therefore we could predict people’s behvaiour in different situations
Empiricism could be studied scientifically, using objective, systematic and reliable methods
Why is being scientific important in Psychology?
So it can be objective, systematic and reliable
Why is being scientific not always appropriate in Psychology?
Not all psychologists share the view that all human behaviour can be explored by the use of scientific methods (e.g. humanists). If human behaviour is not subject to the laws implied by scientific methods, then predictions become impossible and these methods are inappropriate.
According to the behaviourist approach, what is the cause of our behaviour?
They argue that all behaviour is learnt from the environment. We learn new behaviour through classical or operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning is learning via…?
Association
Operant conditioning is learning via…?
Consequences
Describe the procedure and results of Pavlov’s study of classical conditioning
Aim = to discover what causes saliva to flow
Procedure = rerouted the salivary glands to the outside of the dogs cheeks so he could measure the saliva produced. He gave the dogs food and measured the saliva, finding that the dogs produced saliva when their tongues touched the food. But eventually, they started producing saliva beforehand as they were anticipating food. So he erected screens so that the dog couldn’t see when the food was coming. He then introduced a stimulus unrelated to food (a metronome) before feeding the dog. This was repeated many times.
Findings = Initially, the dog only produced saliva when its tongue touched the food. But after repeated pairings, the dog learned to associate the metronome with the food and so salivated when it heard the metronome (same volume of saliva as for the food).
Conclusion = He concluded that animal learn by association (theory of classical conditioning).
Explain the process of classical conditioning, using all of the technical terminology (including association)
Classical conditioning is the idea that we learn by association. Initially, there is a reflex where an unconditioned, or natural, stimulus (e.g. a loud noise) causes an unconditioned, or natural, response (e.g. fear). A neutral stimulus (e.g. a clown) does not naturally produce a response.
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (clown) and unconditioned stimulus (loud noise) are paired together, with the neutral stimulus being presented just before the unconditioned stimulus. This often happens repeatedly. Initially the unconditioned response (fear) occurs as a result of the unconditioned stimulus (loud noise).
After many pairings, an association is formed between the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus leading to a learned response (conditioned response) to what was previously the neutral stimulus, and is now called the conditioned stimulus (clown). Therefore, the conditioned stimulus (clown) alone now elicits the conditioned response (fear) without the unconditioned stimulus (loud noise) and so learning has taken place.
Describe Watson and Rayner’s study of Little Albert and explain how exactly Little Albert learned to fear white rats using the technical terminology from classical conditioning
They showed Little Albert a range of stimuli including a rat, rabbit, dog. Little Albert liked the white rat the most and so this was chosen for the experiment. Then whenever Little Albert went to touch the white rat, a steel bar was struck creating a loud noise, which frightened him.
Learned to associate the white rat with the loud noise and so was conditioned to have a phobia of the white rat.
Before conditioning:
NS (white rat) –> no response
UCS (loud noise) –> UCR (afraid)
During conditioning:
NS (rat) + UCS (noise) –> UCS (afraid)
An association is formed between the NS and UCS
After conditioning:
CS (rat) –> CR (afraid)
In classical conditioning, what do we mean by generalisation, timing, extinction and one-trial learning?
Generalisation - a CR is produced to stimuli similar to the CS.
Timing - if the NS is presented after the UCS, or it is presented before but there is a big time gap between the NS and UCS, conditioning does not take place.
Extinction - a CR is not permanent. If the CS is presented enough times without the UCS, it loses its ability to produce a CR.
One-trial learning - an association is formed between the NS and UCS after just one pairing
Define reinforcement, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment
Reinforcement - a consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. (can be negative and positive)
Punishment - a consequence of behaviour that decreases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.
Positive reinforcement - the person is more likely to repeat the behaviour in the futures because they gained something
Negative reinforcement - the person is more likely to repeat the behaviour in the futures because it takes away something bad
What is a Skinner box?
An animal chamber used in behavioural psychology (by behaviourists) to test hypothesis related to behaviour and learning
Describe the procedure and results of Skinner’s study of rats and explain the results using key terms from operant conditioning
Every time the rat was in the cage it was subjected to unpleasant electric shocks. When it hit the lever, the shocks stopped. The rat continued to press the lever repeatedly because it meant it avoided the shocks. This is an example of negative reinforcement because the rat is more likely to repeat the behaviour in future because it avoids an unpleasant consequence.
Which research method do behaviourists use?
Lab experiments
Describe three assumptions of the behaviourist approach
When born our mind is a blank slate.
There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals. Therefore research can be carried out on animals as well as humans.
Behaviour is the result of stimulus – response (i.e. all behaviour, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus – response association).
The behaviourist approach has lots of real-world applications. Describe a real-world application of classical conditioning and a real-world application of operant conditioning.
The principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real-world behaviours and problems. Operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems which have been used successfully in institutions such as prison and psychiatric wards. These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens. When enough tokens are earned, they can be exchanged for privileges. This makes the prisoners/patients more likely to behave appropriately as their positive behaviour is being reinforced.
Or:
Additionally, classical conditioning has been used effectively in the treatment of phobias through flooding and systematic desensitisation. Patients are exposed to the phobic stimulus (CS) which initially causes anxiety and fear (CR) but this eventually peaks and ebbs away. Therefore the patient learns to associate the phobic stimulus (CS) with relaxation (new CR), overcoming their phobia. This has been found to be very effective for a range of phobias e.g. spiders and flying. Key note: when writing a PEEL paragraph, you would only need to include one real-world application.
How do real-world applications support behaviourism?
The applications of the approach support its external validity as they suggest that the principles can be used to explain a wide range of behaviours and help to support treatments. These treatments are particularly advantageous because they require less effort from the patient because they don’t have to think about their problem like in ‘talking’ therapies.
Skinner particularly used very controlled methods. How? Why is this a strength of behaviourism?
Skinner relied on the experimental method, using controlled conditions e.g. the use of the Skinner box [give specific examples here based on your notes on L2b]. He was able to manipulate the independent variable (consequences of behaviour) to accurately measure the effects on the dependent variable (the rat’s behaviour). Therefore, the researchers are able to establish cause and effect relationships between the consequences of behaviour (positive or negative) and the frequency of its future occurrence, supporting the internal validity of the approach. Consequently, behaviourism was able to bring the methods of the natural sciences into psychology by focusing on observable behaviour within controlled lab settings. By emphasising the importance of replication and objectivity, behaviourism was influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline, giving it greater credibility and status.
Behaviourism suffers from hard determinism. How?
Determinism is the idea that our behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces beyond our control rather than our free will to do something. The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned. Therefore, the behaviourist approach has been accused of environmental determinism. This therefore ignores any possible influence that free will may have on behaviour. Whilst this is potentially more scientific, it could have the negative consequence of people not taking responsibility for their actions. One of the rules of law is that offenders are seen as legally and morally responsible for their actions. The suggestion that behaviour is due to environmental factors we can’t control could complicate this principle and mean that perpetrators don’t take responsibility for their crimes. It also has ethical implications for victims of crimes where criminals may not take responsibility for the crimes that they have committed. As such, whilst the behaviourist approach may be a valid explanation of behaviour, it may not be particularly palatable in society.
Ignore
Behaviourists ignore the role of thoughts and emotions impacting behaviour. What evidence do we have that thoughts or emotions influence behaviour? How is this then a problem for the behaviourist approach?
From a behaviourist’s perspective, animals (including humans) are seen as passive and machine-like responders to the environment with little conscious insight into their behaviour. By treating humans as the product of conditioning alone means that we ignore the evidence for the role of other factors in shaping behaviour. Other approaches in psychology, such as the social learning theory and the cognitive approach, have emphasised the importance of mental events during learning. These processes, which mediate between the stimulus and response, suggest that people may play a much more active role in their own learning. [for the top marks here, add evidence from L3 or L4 that mental processes impact behaviour]. The approach also ignores the potential impact of emotional states on behaviour. For example, research has found that human memory may be impacted by anxiety. For example Johnson and Scott found that in a high anxiety situations, a man leaving a lab with blood and a knife, only 33% could identify him from a set of 50 photographs. However, in a low anxiety situation, with a man holding a pen, 49% could correctly identify him from the 50 photographs, showing that anxiety can have a negative effect on recall and memory. This suggests that learning theory may apply less to human than to animal behaviour, or at least may not be able to completely explain all behaviour and so cannot be considered a completely valid explanation of behaviour. However, Skinner rejected this claim, arguing that these internal states are scientifically untestable and therefore the behaviourist approach is more scientific by not studying these factors.
According to social learning theory, what is the cause of behaviour?
SLT suggests that behaviour is learned from experience, but in a social context.
Describe the procedure and results of Bandura et al.’s study. Explain the results
They carried out an experiment involving children who observed aggressive or non-aggressive adult role models and were then tested for imitative learning in the absence of the model. Half of the children were exposed to adult role models interacting aggressively with a life-sized Bobo doll. And half were exposed to adult models interacting non-aggressively with a life-sized Bobo doll.
The aggressive role model displayed distinctive physically aggressive acts towards the doll e.g. striking it with a mallet, accompanied by verbal aggression such as saying ‘POW.’ Following exposure to the role model, the children were frustrated by being shown attractive toys which they were not allowed to play with. They were then taken into a room where, amongst other toys, was a Bobo doll.
They found that children who observed the aggressive role model reproduced a good deal of physically and verbally aggressive behaviour resembling that of the role model. Children who observed the non-aggressive role model exhibited virtually no aggression towards the Bobo doll.
About 1/3 of the children who observed the aggressive role model repeated the role model’s verbal responses, whilst none of the children who had observed the non-aggressive role models made verbally aggressive remarks.
In a follow-up to the study, Bandura and Walters found that children who saw the role model being rewarded for aggressive acts were more likely to show a high level of aggression in their own play.
Which research method do social learning theorists use?
Lab experiments
Describe three assumptions of Social Learning Theory
SLT suggests that behaviour is learned from experience, but in a social context.
Learning occurs through the observation of the behaviour of others (role models) and the rewards and punishments that they receive for their behaviour. Therefore, humans can also learn indirectly (as well as directly through behaviourism).
He believed that there are important mental processes that lie between the stimulus and response proposed by the behaviourist approach. Therefore, it combines principles from both the behaviourist and cognitive approaches
Social Learning Theory has many real-world applications. Name two different behaviours that SLT can explain and explain how.
SLT has been successfully applied to many areas of psychology. For example, modelling has been used to help to treat anxiety disorders, e.g. showing a role model interacting happily with a phobic object. A vicarious association is made between the positive feelings demonstrated and the object.
Aggression is thought to be the result of observational learning. An influential model who behaves in an aggressive way and is seen to be rewarded for such behaviour may be imitated by others.
How do real-world applications support SLT?
The applications of the approach support its external validity as they suggest that the principles can be used to explain a wide range of behaviours and help to support treatments.
SLT relies mostly on laboratory experiments such as those from Bandura et al. Why is this both a good and bad thing?
Goodas the researchers are able to establish cause and effect relationships between the vicarious consequences of behaviour (positive or negative) and the frequency of its future occurrence in the observer, supporting the internal validity of the approach. The focus on observable behaviour within controlled lab settings emphasises the importance of replication and objectivity. Therefore, SLT has helped to give psychology credibility and status as a scientific discipline.
Bad as lab studies are often criticised for their contrived nature where participants may respond due to demand characteristics. For example in Bandura et al study, it has been suggested that because the main purpose of the Bobo doll is to strike it, the children were simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected.
Therefore, the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life. Consequently, we can’t use the lab studies to strongly support the validity of the SLT explanation of behaviour as the results may be affected by extraneous variables.
In Bandura et al.’s study, boys were found to be more aggressive than girls. Why might this be the case and how is this a weakness of SLT?
By focusing mainly on external behaviour, Bandura makes little reference to the impact of biological factors on social learning. In the Bobo doll experiments, it was consistently found that boys were more aggressive than girls. This could be explained by hormonal factors such as testosterone, where the higher levels in boys may be linked to increased aggressive behaviour. This means that this important influence on behaviour is not accounted for in SLT and so it cannot be considered a complete explanation of all behaviour.
How can SLT explain cultural differences in behaviour? Why is this a strength of SLT?
SLT has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. Social learning principles can account for how children learn from other individuals around them, as well as through the media, and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through societies. This has been useful in understanding a range of behaviours e.g. how children come to understand their gender role. This supports the external validity of the approach as an explanation of behaviour as it can explain why behaviours are different across cultures due to expose to different role models and vicarious reinforcement.
How can SLT be considered a more comprehensive (complete) explanation of behaviour than behaviourism?
Ignore
Neither classical nor operant conditioning (behaviourism) can offer an adequate account of learning on their own. Humans and many animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions. Bandura argued that it would be boring and dangerous to only learn from the consequences of our own behaviour. By observing others, we form an idea of how new behaviours are performed and we can use these on later occasions. This suggests that SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes.
According to the cognitive approach, what is the cause of behaviour?
Behaviour is influenced by conscious and unconscious thoughts (technically called internal mental processes).
Give three examples of different internal mental processes
Attention, memory and thinking
The cognitive approach believes that internal mental processes should be studied __________.
Scientifically and objectively
What is a model and why does the cognitive approach need them?
The cognitive approach has to use models to illustrate internal mental processes because they cannot be seen.
A (theoretical) model is a simplified, usually pictorial, representation of a particular internal mental process that gives us an analogy of how the process works. They often include boxes and arrows to show cause and effect or the stages of a particular mental process. It is based on available evidence e.g. from lab experiments.
What is a computer model?
A computer model is when computer analogies are used as a representation of human cognition, suggesting that there is similarity in the way information is processed.
Both types of models are used to create testable theories about internal mental processing which can then be studied scientifically.
What is an inference?
An inference is going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed i.e. conclusions are indirectly drawn about the way internal mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.
Why are inferences used by the cognitive approach?
So they can study mental processes indirectly
What is a schema?
A schema is a cognitive (mental) framework of beliefs and expectations that help us to organise and interpret information in the brain. They are developed from experience and help us to make sense of new information. They are used as a ‘reference point’ to help us to behave appropriately. They are effectively ‘packages’ of ideas and information that are learned though experience.
How do schemas develop?
They are learned though experience.
How can schemas be useful (i.e. Strengths of them)?
They help us to process lots of information quickly which is useful as a sort of mental short-cut that stops us being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
How can schemas be detrimental (i.e. Weaknesses of them)?
They exclude anything that doesn’t fit our established ideas of the world. Therefore, we may develop stereotypes that are difficult to disconfirm, even with new and conflicting information. They can distort our interpretations of sensory information (because we expect to see, hear etc. something in particular) leading to perceptual errors.
What is cognitive neuroscience?
Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of brain/neurological structures, mechanisms, processes, chemistry that are responsible for cognitive/mental/thinking processes.
Give an example of an application of cognitive neuroscience
Use of scanning/imaging techniques e.g. to locate different types of memory in different areas of the brain leading to treatment for memory problems
Describe three assumptions of the cognitive approach
Behaviour is influenced by conscious and unconscious thoughts. These internal mental processes mediate between the stimulus (input) and response (output). These internal processes can and should be studied scientifically and objectively.
Internal mental processes studied by cognitive psychologists include perception, attention, memory, language, thinking, and problem-solving.
Models are used to create testable theories about mental processing and these can be studied scientifically.
The cognitive approach has many real-world applications. Explain one and why this is a strength of the approach.
For example, cognitive approach has been used to explain mental illnesses such as depression in terms of faulty thinking processes, which has led to the development of treatments such as CBT which aims to change people’s thought processes. For example, it has been found that after 36 weeks, 81% of depressed patients treated with CBT. Additionally, cognitive psychology has made important contributions to artificial intelligence and the development of ‘thinking machines’ that may revolutionise how we live in the future. As such applications have been successful, it suggests that the cognitive approach that underlies them is a valid explanation of behaviour e.g. If depression can be treated by changing people’s thoughts, the thoughts seem to be the cause of the depression in the first place. As the approach has many uses in the real-world, it also supports the approach’s external validity as it can be used to better lives.
The cognitive approach is considered to be scientific. Explain how.
The approach has always used highly controlled and rigorous methods in order to infer cognitive processes at work. This has involved the use of laboratory experiments in order to produce reliable, objective data. Add an example of this from the memory topic e.g. Loftus and Palmer’s study (each participant given same instructions, told to watch the same thing, same question apart from the one verb). Talk about what they controlled in the study. As such, the study of the mind has established a credible, scientific way for reaching valid conclusions about how the mind works, supporting the cognitive approach.
The cognitive approach suffers from machine reductionism. What is this and what evidence do we have to argue the approach is invalid as a result?
Whilst there are many similarities between the human mind and the operation of computers (e.g. input, storage systems etc.), the computer analogy has been criticised. Such reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information. For example, research has found that human memory may be impacted by anxiety. For example Johnson and Scott found that in a high anxiety situations, a man leaving a lab with blood and a knife, only 33% could identify him from a set of 50 photographs. However, in a low anxiety situation, with a man holding a pen, 49% could correctly identify him from the 50 photographs, showing that anxiety can have a negative effect on recall and memory. This suggests that by ignoring the role of such processes and how they affect our ability to process information and therefore our behaviour, the cognitive approach cannot be considered a complete explanation of human behaviour.
Experiments using the cognitive approach often rely on artificial stimuli. Give an example of this and explain why this is a problem for the approach.
Experimental studies of such mental processes often involve meaningless stimuli (e.g. learning random word lists to make inferences about memory processes) that may not represent the everyday processing experience. Consequently, research on cognitive processes may lack external validity in that the results may not generalise from the artificial stimuli to real-life situations where internal mental processes occur. This suggests that the research cannot strongly support the cognitive approach.
According to the biological approach, what is the cause of behaviour?
The biological approach emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body, such as genetic inheritance, hormones, neurochemistry and the nervous system, impacting our behaviour.
As such, the approach argues that behaviour and thought processes have an innate biological basis. Therefore, an understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour. E.g. intelligence is due to our genetic make-up.
Genes affect behaviour and influence psychological differences between people. This includes the idea that behaviours have evolved.
Define genes
A part of the chromosome of an organism that carries information in the form of DNA. This DNA codes the physical (e.g. hair colour) and psychological (e.g. intelligence) features of an organism. E.g. OCD
