Chapter 7&8

Question 1

What is the prefrontal cortex for, and what developments during middle childhood does it support

Answer 1

prefrontal cortex: significant development during middle to late childhood
- provides an advantage to neural network and connections
- best for problem-solving
- highest level of the brain
regulate thoughts, emotions, and actions

Question 2

Screen time is a well-discussed issue for children during this stage. How is it
relevant to exercise, health and illness, learning disabilities?

Answer 2

exercise: increases risk of reduced activity

health + illness: increases risk of being overweight

Question 3

What is the gender ratio of children classified as having a learning disability? Why
do you think this is?

Answer 3

three times as many boys as girls is classified to have a learning disability
this is because the behavior of boys is more likely to be reported / referred by teachers for
treatment
- referral bias

Question 4

4. Describe how to recognize ADHD,

Answer 4

where children consistently show one or more of a variety of these characteristics:
1. inattention: cannot focus on any one thing they may get bored with
2. hyperactivity: high levels of physical activity, always in motion
3. impulsivity: cannot curb reactions + do not think before they act

Question 5

Possible risk factors for ADHD development

Answer 5

possible contributions can be genetics, brain damage during prenatal or postnatal
development, cigarette + alcohol exposure during prenatal development, high maternal
stress during prenatal development, low birthweight and / or premature birth, low
socioeconomic status

Question 6

Consequences of ADHD

Answer 6

have an increased risk of: lower academic achievement, problematic peer relations, school
dropout, disordered eating, adolescent pregnancy, substance use problems, antisocial
behavior

Question 7

What is asperger syndrom?

Answer 7

asperger syndrome: relatively mild autism spectrum disorder in which the child has
relatively good verbal language, milder nonverbal language problems, and a
restricted range of interests and relationships
- obsessive repetitive routines + preoccupations with particular subjects
(hyperfixations)

Question 8

autistic disorder:

Answer 8

autistic disorder: severe developmental autism spectrum disorder that has onset in
the first three years of life + includes deficiencies in social relationships,
abnormalities in communication , and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped
patterns of behavior

autism = brain dysfunction with abnormalities in brain structure + neurotransmitters

Question 9

Does family socialization cause autism?

Answer 9

• no evidence that family socialization causes autism

Question 10

Ideal classroom for autistic kids

Answer 10

generally benefit from well-structured classroom, individualized teaching + small-group
instruction

Question 11

6. Discuss our current approach to including children with disabilities in the U.S.
   public education system.

Answer 11

individualized education plan (IEP): written statement specifically tailored for the disabled
student

Question 12

Discuss our current approach to including children with disabilities in the U.S.
public education system.

Answer 12

individualized education plan (IEP): written statement specifically tailored for the disabled
student
least restrictive environment (LRE): setting as similar as possible to the one in which
nondisabled children are educated
inclusion: education a child with special education needs full-time in the regular classroom

Question 13

Describe a child’s achievements and limitations in Piaget’s concrete operational
stage.

Answer 13

encompasses the ages of 7 to 11
where children can perform concrete operations and reason logically, and are able to
classify things into different sets
- operation: mental actions that are reversible
- concrete operations: mental actions that are applied to real, concrete objects
seriation: the concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along a quantitative
dimension (e.g length)
- ex. if someone asked you to order sticks by length, concrete operational thinkers
would understand that each stick needs to be longer than the one before it and
shorter than the one after it
transitivity: the ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions
- ex. A = longest, B = middle, C = shortest. concrete operational thinkers understand
that if A is longer than B, then A is also longer than C

Question 14

8. Explain some of the strategies children may learn to use to improve their memory
   during the concrete operational stage.

Answer 14

mental imagery: works better for older children than for younger children + remember pictures

to remember material by understanding it rather than memorizing
repeat with variation on the instructional information → link early + often

embed memory-relevant language when instructing children, include keywords

elaboration: engage in more extensive processing of information

Question 15

Summarize “fuzzy trace theory.” How does it explain the improvements in
children’s memory compared to earlier childhood?

Answer 15

fuzzy trace theory: memory is best understood through two types of memory
representations.
1. verbatim memory trace: precise details of information
2. gist: central idea of information
a. fuzzy traces is built up → uses gist more + this contributes to improved
memory + reasoning of older children
b. younger children use more specific verbatim traces

Question 16

What is critical thinking, and what are the specific skills involved

Answer 16

critical thinking: thinking reflectively and productively, as well as evaluating evidence
- mindfulness: to be alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible with what is
going on in everyday life = important !

Question 17

creative thinking:

Answer 17

ability to think in novel + unusual ways as well as to come up with
unique solutions to problems
- convergent thinking: produces one correct answer and characterizes the kind of
thinking that is required on conventional tests of intelligence
- divergent thinking: produces many different answers to the same question and
characterizes creativity

Question 18

How to calculate IQ

Answer 18

• IQ = (MA/CA) x 100
  the idea of mental age was developed by Alfred Binet
  IQ was actually created by William Stern in 1912

Question 19

Sternmerg’s models of multiple intelligences and their models

Answer 19

Sternberg: triarchic theory of intelligence

1. analytical intelligence: ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast
2. creative intelligence: consists of the ability to create, design, invent, originate, and
   imagine
3. practical intelligence: ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice

Question 20

Gardener’s theory of multiple intelligences

Answer 20

Gardner: eight frames of mind

1. verbal: ability to think in words + use language to express meaning
   a. authors, journalists, speakers
2. mathematical: the ability to carry out mathematical operations
   a. scientists, engineers, accountants
3. spatial: ability to think three-dimensionally
   a. architects, artists, sailors
4. bodily-kinesthetic: ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept
   a. surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, athletes
5. musical: sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone
   a. composers, musicians, and sensitive listeners
6. interpersonal: ability to understand and interact effectively with others
   a. successful teachers, mental health professionals
7. intrapersonal: ability to understand oneself
   a. theologians, psychologists
8. naturalist: ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and
   human-made systems
   a. farmers, botanists, ecologists, landscapers

Question 21

13.Discuss multiple reasons that poverty has a negative impact on IQ.

Answer 21

IQ increases with parental communication. if they are able to talk to their child more,
especially in the formative first three years of life, then the child ends up having a higher
intelligence quotient
the environment also plays a huge role in IQ testing. it is harder for low-income parents to
provide an intellectual environment that will benefit their child
stereotype threat: anxiety that one’s behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about
their group

Question 22

14.We also observe group differences in IQ scores. How can we best understand
these, and what should we do to address this issue?

Answer 22

use IQ scores to critique current opportunities available (or unavailable) to certain groups
culture-fair tests: tests of intelligence that are intended to be free of cultural bias
1. includes items that are familiar to children from every socioeconomic and ethnic
backgrounds
2. no verbal questions
avoid stereotyping + expectations
IQ is not a sole indicator of competence
use caution with interpreting an overall IQ score

Question 23

15.Distinguish between organic and cultural-familial intellectual disabilities.

Answer 23

intellectual disability: condition of limited mental ability

organic intellectual disability: caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage

cultural-familial intellectual disability: no evidence of organic brain damage, IQ is between
50-70

Question 24

16.According to research, how do gifted children fare?

Answer 24

people who are “gifted” have an IQ of 130+ and/or a superior talent for something
1. precocity: learning in a different way + needing minimal help
2. passion to master
3. information-processing skills

product of heredity and environment
practice is incredibly crucial
usually emerges during the childhood years → important for people to identify talent +
provide opportunities that will be optimal for their development until adolescence

Question 25

17.Describe contrasting approaches to teaching reading. What does research indicate
is most effective?

Answer 25

whole-language approach: reading instruction should parallel children’s natural language
learning
- beginning readers are taught whole words / sentences
- children are given reading material in its complete form → learn language’s
communicative function

phonics approach: reading instruction needs to teach the basic rules for translating
written symbols into sounds
- this should be most emphasized
- children can benefit from both but research prefers this
- teaching phonics = learn how to read
1. be aware of sound units in words
2. decode words
3. accessing word meaning (mental representation of a word)

Question 26

18.Why is it valuable to teach children a second language?

Answer 26

children who are fluent in two languages (bilingualism) benefit cognitively
1. perform better in tests of attention, concept formation, analytical reasoning,
cognitive flexibility, and cognitive complexity
2. more conscious of structure of spoken + written language
3. notice grammatical errors easier → benefits their reading capabilities

Question 27

Downsides to teaching children another language

Answer 27

lower vocabulary knowledge

Question 28

What is social comparison,

Answer 28

social comparison: children begin to describe themselves with psychological
characteristics and trains compared to concrete self-descriptions

Question 29

What role does social comparison play in self-understanding during middle childhood

Answer 29

they are able to distinguish themselves from others in comparative ways than absolute
perspective taking: assuming the perspective of others and understanding their thoughts
+ feelings

Question 30

self-esteem: aka self-worth / self-image.

Answer 30

global evaluations of the self
ex. a child may not perceive themselves as a “person” but a “good person”
- do not always match reality
- high self-esteem = accurate, justified perceptions of an individual’s worth as a
person + success as wella s accomplishments
- low self-esteem = accurate perception of one’s shortcomings or a distorted
insecurity and inferiority

Question 31

self-concept:

Answer 31

domain-specific evaluations of the self
- - ex. a child perceives themselves as “a nerd” because they excel academically.
specifically with domains / other areas
research is mainly correlational rather than experimental. correlation does not equate to
causation
- thus, low self-esteem and low-academic achievement could be associated with one
another, but both can impact the other
only a few correlations between school performance and self-esteem → do not suggest
that high self-esteem = better school performance
increased efforts to improve self-esteem does not lead to improved school performance
higher self-esteem → greater initiative (can lead to good or bad consequences), prosocial
(or antisocial) behavior
- values the rewards of aggression
the current concern is receiving compliments for everything they do, including mediocre
work. children are now unable to accept criticism / competition

Question 32

What is self-efficacy? How does this relate to success?

Answer 32

self-efficacy: belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes
- can affect a student’s choice of activities
- ex. high self-efficacy → higher chance that a child will spend more effort to do
things and persist longer to learn tasks
- the “I can do it!” mindset. naturally, this leads to success

Question 33

Describe Erikson’s fourth stage, industry vs. inferiority. What kinds of behaviors do
children engage in that are representative of this stage?

Answer 33

industry: children become interested in how things are made and how they work
- encouragement = sense of industry
- being scolded after making mistakes → feeling of inferiority
ex. making a treehouse, building a model airplane, fixing a bicycle, etc.

Question 34

Discuss some of the main criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory,

Answer 34

-puts too much emphasis on time and not enough emphasis on behavior
- Jonathan Haidt argues that moral thinking is more an intuitive gut reaction + moral
reasoning = justification
-according to Carol Gilligan, his theory reflects gender bias
- culturally biased

Question 35

What are Carol Gilligan’s alternatives to Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 35

alternative #1: justice perspective
- this focuses more on the rights of the individual, where they independently
make moral decisions

• alternative #2: care perspective (as proposed by Gilligan)
• views moral reasoning through connectedness + emphasizes interpersonal
  communication, relationships, and concern for others

Question 35

How is Kohlberg’s theory culturally biased

Answer 35

it is also culturally biased, as level 3 thinking is not seen in every culture
- postconventional moral reasoning has been declining in college student
- prosocial behavior is declining in Western cultures

Question 36

t/f most agree with Kohlberg and Piaget on how peers influence moral code

Answer 36

true but there are a variety of alternatives

Question 37

domain theory of moral development:

Answer 37

development: involves different domains of social knowledge and
reasoning (moral, social conventional, and personal) comes from experience + attempts to understand social norms and building
relationships

Question 38

social conventional reasoning:

Answer 38

social conventional reasoning: focuses on conventional rules established by social
consensus
-
- - moral reasoning focuses more on ethical issues + moral rules

Question 39

stereotypes in physical differences of male vs female: broad categories that reflect general impressions and beliefs about
males and females.

Answer 39

females have twice body fat, longer life expectancy, less likely to develop disorders,
smaller brains with more folds
- fat goes to their hips and breasts
- males are generally taller and the fat goes to their abdomen, larger brains with less
folds

Question 40

stereotypes in cognitive differences of male vs female: broad categories that reflect general impressions and beliefs about
males and females.

Answer 40

no gender differences have been seen in general intelligence
- women have better verbal + reading/writing skills than men, as well as overall
academic achievement (other factors come into play)
- men have better visuospatial skills

Question 41

socioemotional differences between males and females

Answer 41

men are more physically aggressive, show less self-regulation
- women are more verbally aggressive, have more instances of relational aggression
(e.g bullying, manipulating, etc), more prosocial + empathetic

evidently varies from culture to culture + country to country
gender differences + stereotypes largely depend on context of the situation
- ex. men would most likely assist someone stranded on the side of the road with a
flat tire because the context is masculine in nature
- ex. women are more likely to assist someone with caregiving / children with
personal problems

Question 42

Describe the shift in role/relationship that takes place between parents and
children during middle and late childhood.

Answer 42

parents spent much less time with their children during middle and late childhood
- still important figures with support
- less physical forms of punishment
some control → child = coregulation
self-regulation for children is more common
major shift does not occur until the age of 12
mothers are more likely than fathers to monitor children’s behavior and manage their
child’s opportunities

Question 43

10.Discuss research on relationships and outcomes for children in stepfamilies.

Answer 43

• remarried parents need to strengthen their relationship, negotiate their biological
  parent-child relationships, and establish relationships with stepchild + their stepsiblings
  -children often have better relationships with the parent they spend the most time with
  (custodial parents)
  -children with simple stepfamilies were adjusting better + functioning well in conflicted
• nondivorced families / complex stepfamilies
  children in stepfamilies experience more adjustment problems than children in
  nondivorced families

Question 44

11.Name and describe five peer statuses described by developmental researchers.

Answer 44

-popular children: bestie <3 rarely disliked by peers
-average children: average in terms of what people think of them, positives and negatives
-neglected children: not nominated as a bestie but not really disliked or liked either
-rejected children: not bestie. not liked.
-controversial children: someone else’s bestie but also not liked

Question 45

12.Describe research on what causes social rejection, particularly for boys, and relate
these findings to bullying.

Answer 45

boys are more aggressive
- due to impulsivity + problems sustaining attention
- disruptive of ongoing activities in the classroom + focused group play
- more emotionally reactive
- get angry more easily and have difficulty calming down
- fewer social skills

social context → bullying
- bullying is more likely to happen towards boys
bullied: loneliness and difficulty making friends
bullies: have low grades, higher chance of smoking / drinking
children on both extremes (timid + socially withdrawn or aggressive) are likely to become
targets of bullying

Question 46

constructivist approach:

Answer 46

learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of
individuals actively constructing their own knowledge and understanding with guidance
- emphasis on collaboration

Question 47

direct instruction approach:

Answer 47

approach: structured, teacher centered approach that is characterized
by..
1. teacher direction + control
2. academic skills are recorded for mastery, with high expectations set for progress
3. efforts to keep negative affect to a minimum
14.Summarize the evolution of state-mandated testing in the U.S.
allows for schools to be held accountable of what students had or had not learned

Question 48

No Child Left Behind legislation in 2002

Answer 48

→ states identified objectives for students in
state in order to measure whether students were meeting those objectives or not
statewide student testing = improved student performance, knowing where schools are
lacking, more time teaching subjects that are tested, high expectations for all students,
identification of poorly performing schools, teachers or admins, and improved confidence
in schools

Question 49

Criticism of the ‘No Child Left Behind legislation in 2002’

Answer 49

criticism = using a single test as an indicator of students’ progress and competence is a
very narrow view of students’ skills and performance

Question 50

15.Discuss the multitude of reasons that low-income and minority U.S. children are
more likely to struggle in school, and interventions that have been found to help.

Answer 50

more students with low achievement test scores
low graduation rates
smaller percentages of students going to college
young teachers with less experience
fewer resources, like less decent buildings
encourage diversity to improve relationships: turn class into a jigsaw classroom (don’t just
lump the same groups together), encourage students to have positive personal contact
with other students, reduce bias, be a competent cultural mediator + view the school and
community as a team

Question 51

16.Describe Dweck’s research on fixed and growth mindsets. Which mindsets
predominate in what populations? How can we use this knowledge to improve
learning outcomes?

Answer 51

fixed mindset: believe that their qualities cannot change
growth mindset: their qualities can change and improve through their own effort
compared cross-cultural differences between American students and Asian students
- Asian students had parents who held high expectations for them, assisted them
with work, and attributed achievement to hard work and effort
- thus, they have higher scores on standardized tests and the gap is only increasing
emphasize to students that having a growth mindset is beneficial to excelling