Research and Design

Question 1

The nature of Scientific inquiry is the desire to _____

Answer 1

Know

Question 2

It is about, six things:

1. Exploration…
2. Learning the w, h, and wh_, things F_____ the way they do
3. Testing _______ about the nature of something
4. Connecting Conc________ understanding with Obj________ reality
5. testing and connecting theo___ premises, _____, and frameworks with observable phen_____.
6. It involves using ____ order and _______ procedure to solve real world problems

Answer 2

It is about exploration!

• It is about learning what, how, and
  why things function the way they do.
• It is about testing hypotheses about
  the nature of something.
• It is about connecting conceptual
  understanding with objective reality.
• It is about testing and connecting
  theoretical premises, claims, and
  frameworks with observable
  phenomena.
• It involves using a logical order and established procedures to solve real-world problems.

Question 3

real world conclusions are often ____ because of ______ in sources of knowledge reduce the accuracy of reasoning

Answer 3

flawed; limitations

Question 4

Generally, people subjectively interpret their own observations and what is learned via
______- and ________.

Answer 4

TRADITION

And

AUTHORITY

Question 5

tradition refers to…

Answer 5

Tradition refers to cultural teachings about the
“real world” * Sometimes very useful (watch out for poisonous things)

HOWEVER - most of the time traditional-
based knowledge is flawed, resulting in the
perpetuation of inaccurate beliefs,
perceptions, or fallacious thinking

Question 6

“That which may be thought right and found convenient in one age,
may be thought wrong and found inconvenient in another. In such
cases, who is to decide, the living, or the dead?”

Who said it?

Answer 6

Thomas Paine
(1791) in “The Rights of Man”
Social

Question 7

Authority refers to…

Answer 7

Authority refers to new knowledge that is provided from
the observations of others whom one respects

• If the authority being appealed to is an expert on the
  topic from which knowledge flows, then it is more
  likely to be correct
• HOWEVER – the knowledge one gains from an
  “authority” depends on that authority’s grounding
  and expertise in the topic

Question 8

Causal inquiry is influenced by. . .

Answer 8

Causal inquiry is influenced by “tradition” and
“authority” – therefore it is also subject to error

Question 9

Errors of “Causal Inquiry” (based on its birthing by “tradition” and “influence”)

4 errors:

Answer 9

Inaccurate observation – conclusions drawn
from incomplete/hasty information

• Overgeneralization – conclusions are made
  about individuals/groups based on knowledge
  of similar individuals/groups
• Selective observation – one sees only those
  things that one wants to see; confirmation bias
  also implied here
• Illogical reasoning – despite past observations,
  the future will be different

Question 10

Antidote to casual inquiry error (what method do we use?)

Answer 10

Scientific Method!

Question 11

IMPORTANT: the scientific method seeks to provide a means of investigation to correct the
_________ of ordinary human Inq_______.

Answer 11

Inaccuracies

inquiry

Question 12

means of the SCIENTIFIC METHOD in preventing errors in our inquires:

Answer 12

Specify Objectivity

Logic

Theoretical reasoning

And knowledge of prior research

Question 13

Empiricism

Answer 13

Empiricism – seeking answers through direct observation

Question 14

Skepticsm

Answer 14

Skepticism – seeking disconfirming evidence and always questioning the conclusions
reached

Question 15

Relativism

Answer 15

Relativism – the truth and falsity “are products of differing conventions and
frameworks of assessment and that their authority is confined to the context giving
rise to them.” In other words, there are few axioms in life…

Question 16

objectivity

Answer 16

Objectivity – observing the world objectively as it really exists, free from opinion,
belief, faith, and prejudice (the best that we possibly can

Question 17

Ethical Neutrality

Answer 17

Ethical neutrality – researchers’ beliefs or preferences are NOT allowed to influence
the research process or its outcomes

Question 18

Parsimony

Answer 18

Parsimony – reducing the sum of possible explanations for an event/phenomenon to
the smallest possible number. In other words, to seek the simplest explanation

Question 19

Accuracy

Answer 19

Accuracy – recording observations exactly as they occur

Question 20

Precision

Answer 20

Precision – specifying the number of subcategories of a concept that are available

Question 21

Ladder of Scientific process:

Answer 21

1st Observation

2nd Hypothesis

3rd Experiment

Leading to Theory!

Question 22

Theory suggests how something should be: it is “an A______ to explain why a particular ____
_____ or _____ occurs”

Answer 22

attempt;

social activity;

event

Question 23

Personal Ide_____ are of no value in criminological theory unless they are evaluable via the ____ _______

Answer 23

ideologies;

Scientific method

Question 24

hypotheses are . . .

Answer 24

Hypotheses are specifically measurable statements

Question 25

Theories are built from more precise statements
(concepts), termed “______”

Answer 25

“hypothesis”

Question 26

Inductive defintion

Answer 26

Inductive – observe event(s), make
empirical generalizations about observed activities, construct theory based on those activities

Question 27

Deductive definition

Answer 27

Deductive – Theoretical orientation,
develop hypotheses, test hypotheses ,
develop empirical generalizations that support theoretical framework

Question 28

Which approach (deductive or inductive) does the scientific method utilize?

Answer 28

Deductive

Question 29

Research Origins:

Answer 29

Applied research – scientific study of some phenomena with practical application as
the main goal. Findings from this type of research can be used to improve, change, or
eliminate the thing being studied

• Basic research – pure research that is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge
  about a particular set of phenomena. Findings from this research advance the
  academic field of criminology by contributing knowledge, as well as inform theoretical
  orientations for criminal justice system components/operations
• Multipurpose research – conducts scientific inquiries for both descriptive and
  evaluative purposes. It is both basic and applied, often progressing between these two
  forms of research.

Question 30

types of research:

Answer 30

Descriptive – it’s exactly that, descriptive.
We conduct research to describe the
nature of the thing we are interested in.

• Explanatory – research focuses on why
  something occurs, the causes behind
  events
• Predictive – research focuses on
  predicting events or actions into the
  future (e.g., actuarial risk assessments)
• Intervening - research focuses on the
  effectiveness of something (like programs
  or policies) in producing desired results

Question 31

Why research is necessary:

Answer 31

We conduct research because…
*We’re curious

*We’re interested in addressing some social problem

*We’re interested in testing the applicability or predictive potential of criminological theories

*If we did not conduct research usingscientific methods, our curiosities,our ability to address problems, andour understanding of whethertheories actually explain criminalbehavior would be diminishedconsiderably!

Question 32

Factors that influence research decisions:

Answer 32

• Social/political factors – Criminology/criminal justice
  research is necessarily influenced by social and political
  factors. Gun violence research and/or gun policy
  research is particularly controversial, and thus will impact
  how research on these topics are undertaken
• Practicality – sometimes, even when a researcher has a
  great idea for a study, economic and/or logistical reasons
  make it nearly impossible to conduct
• Ethical considerations – sometimes research involves
  studying protected populations of people, and so issues
  of privacy, deception, and potential harm to participants
  are always relevant factors in conducting research like
  this