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UK Politics > liberalism > Flashcards

liberalism Flashcards

1
Q

foundational equality

A

rights that humans have by virtue of being born which cannot be taken away

also known as natural rights and inalienable rights

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2
Q

formal equality

A

the idea that all individuals should have the same legal and political rights in society

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3
Q

equality of opportunity

A

the idea that all individuals should have equal chances in life to rise and fall

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4
Q

social contract

A

the idea that the state/society is set up with an agreement from the people to respect the laws which serve to protect them

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5
Q

meritocracy

A

a society organised on the belief that success is based on hard work and merit

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6
Q

mechanistic society

A

idea that the state was create by ‘man’ to serve the people and act in their favour

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7
Q

limited government

A

role of the government is limited by checks and balances and a separation of powers because of the corrupting nature of power

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8
Q

egotistical individualism

A

idea the individual freedom is associated with self-interest and self-reliance

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9
Q

developmental individualism

A

the idea that individual freedom is linked to humans flourishing

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10
Q

Keynesianism

A

economic system which requires government involvement to stimulate the economy to achieve full employment and price stability

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11
Q

laissez-faire capitalism

A

an economic system, organised by the market, where goods are produced in exchange for profit. no or minimal government involvement

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12
Q

negative freedom

A

the absence of external constraints in society as well as no interference from the private sphere

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13
Q

positive freedom

A

the idea that freedom is about personal fulfilment and realisation of potential

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14
Q

who are the classical liberal key thinkers?

A

John locke
Mary Wollstonecraft
John stuart mill

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15
Q

who are the modern liberal key thinkers?

A

John Rawls
Betty Friedan

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16
Q

what are John Lockes main ideas?

A

social contract theory
limited government

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17
Q

what is Lockes social contract theory?

A

the relationship between individuals, society and the state are based on voluntary agreements

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18
Q

what’s is Locke’s theory of limited government?

A

government should be limited and must have the consent of the people

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19
Q

what’s was Mary Wollstonecrafts main ideas?

A

reason
formal equality

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20
Q

what did Wollstonecraft say about reason?

A

that woman are rational, reasonable, and independent beings, capable of reason and therefore should be able to enter the public sphere on equal grounds of men

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21
Q

what is Wollstonecraft believe on formal equality?

A

to be free, women should enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to have a career

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22
Q

what were Mill’s main ideas?

A

harm principle
tolerance

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23
Q

what was Mill’s harm principles?

A

rational beings should be free to make their own reasonable actions free from state interference unless is harmed other individuals

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24
Q

what did Mill believe on tolerance?

A

just because a view is popular doesn’t make it correct

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25
Q

what were Rawls key ideas?

A

theory of justice
veil of ignorance

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26
Q

what was Rawls’ theory of justice?

A

society must be just and guarantee each citizen a good quality of life that’s worth living

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27
Q

what’s was Rawls’ veil of ignorance theory?

A

hypothetical scenario where individuals will agree on the type of society they want, without knowing what their position in that society will be

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28
Q

what was Betty Friedan’s main ideas?

A

legal equality
equal opportunity

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29
Q

what did Freidan believe on legal equality?

A

women are as capable as men and oppressive laws and social views must be overturned

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30
Q

what did Freidan believe on equality of opportunity?

A

women are held back from achieving their potential because of the limited number of jobs that are ‘acceptable’ for women

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31
Q

what are the principles of liberalism?

A

individualism
freedom/liberty
state
rationalism
equality/social justice
liberal democracy

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32
Q

what type of individualism to classical believe in?

A

egotistical

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33
Q

what type of individualism do moderns believe in?

A

developmental

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34
Q

what do classical think that human nature is?

A

fixed, meaning humans have everything they need to flourish from birth

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35
Q

what do moderns think that human nature is?

A

not fixed, it can change

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36
Q

what is individualism?

A

the individuals interests are more important than collective/societal interests

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37
Q

who was an advocate for greater education?

A

Mill

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38
Q

why did Mill advocate for greater education?

A

in the hope of promoting developmental individualism, focussing on what individuals could become rather than what they had at that stage of their life

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39
Q

according to Mill, what would greater education protect?

A

liberal values of tolerance, reason and individualism

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40
Q

what is tolerance?

A

a willingness to respect values, customs, and beliefs with which one disagrees with

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41
Q

wha is tolerance one of?

A

natural rights

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42
Q

what did tolerance originally refer to?

A

religious beliefs

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43
Q

what has tolerance extended to?

A

wide range of views and practices i.e same sex relationships

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44
Q

what do all liberals believe individuals are capable of?

A

tolerance

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45
Q

What is the state of nature?

A

a hypothetical example of what life might have looked like before laws and government

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46
Q

what do liberals believe would have happened in the state of nature?

A

conflicts wold emerge as people pursued their own self-interests

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47
Q

what did Locke believe was needed to prevent clashes between people?

A

a mechanism like the state

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48
Q

where did Locke argue that people were able to exercise their natural rights?

A

the sate of nature

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49
Q

where do liberals believe tolerance should be extended to?

A

extended to intolerant acts unless it directly threatens other individuals

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50
Q

what did Freidan argue for greater toleration to?

A

genders and races

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51
Q

what did Freidan argue held many people back?

A

believed in western societies people were held back due t irate factors like gender or race

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52
Q

what did Freidan argue that the barriers to potential were?

A

illiberal attitudes

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53
Q

what did Friedan believed pushed problematic values onto women which reverted them from reaching her potential?

A

societies ‘cultural channels’ like schools, religious organisations, media, literature and cinema

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54
Q

what did Freidan argue that societies ‘cultural channels’ did?

A

culturally conditioned peoplemleayving women to believe that their live was determined by human nature and not their own rational abilities and enterprises

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55
Q

what did Feidan want to use to enact change for women?

A

the state

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56
Q

what did Friedan view the state as?

A

the institutions which could allow the constant improvement of peoples lives

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57
Q

what did modern liberals propose in regards to the state?

A

an enlarged enabling state

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58
Q

why did liberals want an enlarged enabling state?

A

to achieve positive freedoms for individuals

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59
Q

what was positive discrimination?

A

treating someone, who has been disadvantaged due to innate factors like gender, differently in order to produce positive outcomes.

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60
Q

what does positive discrimination look like?

A

in the US for example, this has been in the form of Affirmative Programmes which secures greater equality of opportunity

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61
Q

what is freedom?

A

must be exercised under the law and the government should not prevent people from doing what they choose unless their actions threaten others ability to do the same for themselves

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62
Q

what is liberals mechanistic view of human behaviour?

A

that saw people as driven by rational self-interest

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63
Q

what view on human nature do classical liberal reject?

A

a pessimistic view, they think all humans are capable of rational thought

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64
Q

what do classical believe each person should be given?

A

as much personal freedom as possible

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65
Q

what do liberals believe society is a collection of?

A

atomised self interested individuals

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66
Q

what do liberals believe that humans have which will lead to harmony?

A

their rationality

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67
Q

what principles do classical liberals support?

A

Mills harm principle

68
Q

what would Mills harm principle mean for freedom?

A

there would be virtually no limits on freedom as long as their actions do not harm another individual

69
Q

where were Mills views on freedom outlined?

A

his book ‘On Liberty’ which outlines his views on negative freedoms

70
Q

where did Mill believe that freedom could exist?

A

in the absence of restraint from the state

71
Q

where did Mill explain his harm principle?

A

On Liberty he said the actions of individuals should always be tolerated unless those actions would harm others

72
Q

what did mill divide individuals actions into?

A

‘self-regarding’ and ‘other-regarding’

73
Q

what were ‘other-regarding’ actions?

A

actions which did directly affect others and therefore should not be tolerated by the state

74
Q

what concept of freedom do classical support?

A

negative freedoms

75
Q

why do classical support negative freedoms?

A

they believe in a minimalist state which acts merely as an enforcer of contracts

76
Q

what did Locke famously say on negative freedom?

A

‘no body can give more power than a man has himself’

77
Q

what concept of freedom do modern liberals support?

A

positive freedom

78
Q

why do modern liberals believe in positive freedoms?

A

they believe the state should enable he individual o help them achieve their potential regardless of factors restricting them

79
Q

what did Rawls believe would be required through an enabling state?

A

significant redistribution of wealth, with far-reaching public spending and progressive taxation

80
Q

what did Rawls argue would happen in behind the veil (veil of ignorance theory)?

A

that in the original position behind the veil, everyone would choose to create a more just society as they were unaware of the position in society they would end up in, this then justified positive freedoms for individuals from the state

81
Q

what do modern and classical agree on human nature?

A

they both share an optimistic view on human nature

82
Q

do modern liberals agree with the harm principle?

A

to some extent.

they agree with the sentiments behind it but disagree on what constitutes harm - incudes psychological and emotional harm

83
Q

what do modern liberals support limits on that classical dont?

A

limits of speech and actions that may cause others harm, which is why modern liberals have been at the forefront of supporting hate speech legislation

84
Q

what do modern liberals believe that negative freedom will amount to?

A

‘freedom to starve’

85
Q

what did modern liberals support which shows they want an enabling state with positive freedoms?

A

human rights act 1998 and equality act 2010

86
Q

to liberals, what is the state?

A

its a threat to the individuals freedom and liberty and therefore there must always be a limited government

87
Q

do liberals believe the state is necessary?

A

yes

88
Q

why do liberals believe the state is necessary?

A

without it we would live in a unsafe, lawless conditions.

89
Q

what do liberals believe power does?

A

corrupts human nature

90
Q

what do liberals refer to the state as?

A

a necessary evil

91
Q

how do liberals suggest the government be limited?

A

constitutionalism
government by consent
checks and balance
separation of the powers

92
Q

what constitutions is built on classical liberal ideas?

A

US constitution

93
Q

what did Locke argue the state should be based on?

A

the principle of ‘government by consent’

94
Q

what do classical believe that the state should not interfere with?

A

the free market - strong opposed to protectionism in the 19th century

95
Q

what do classical liberals argue the state should act as?

A

a night watchman

96
Q

what does it mean when the states acts as a ‘night watchman’

A

the role of the state being to protect freedom of individuals through law

97
Q

what did mill believe to be the role of the state?

A
  • protect individuals
  • protect property rights
  • protect the nation from external threat
  • not interfere with the economy
  • be based on representative democracy rather than direct
98
Q

who made the concept of negative freedom?

A

Isaiah Berlin

99
Q

what do classical liberals emphasise through negative freedoms?

A

minimal state intervention and involvement

100
Q

in regards to the economy, what do classical liberals believe the role of the state should be?

A

non-interventionist state in laissez faire economic policy

101
Q

in regards to the economy, what sort of state do moderns advocate for?

A

a more interventionist state rooted in the principles of Keynesianism

102
Q

what did Adam Smith say the market would do?

A

regulate itself so not needing state intervention

103
Q

what did Adam Smith argue guides the market?

A

‘invisible hand’

104
Q

the governments of who promoted a rolling back of the state in the economy?

A

Thatcher and Reagan in the 1980s

105
Q

what would Lockes minimal state entail?

A

a state restricted to maintaining social order, enforcing contracts and providing defence

106
Q

what do classical liberals endorse the end f in regards to the economy?

A

tariffs and duties on imports that had domestic producers of goods

107
Q

what are classical liberals inclines to see taxation as?

A

theft and sought to limit it where possible

108
Q

what sort of state to modern liberals want?

A

enlarged enabling state

109
Q

why do modern liberals want an enlarged enabling state?

A

they believe the state should provide positive freedoms

110
Q

what do modern liberals argue that a limited state allows?

A

leaves room for capitalism to create huge inequalities preventing many from achieving their potential due to being held back by poverty and debt

111
Q

do modern liberals support. welfare state?

A

yes

112
Q

what roles did modern liberals add to the state?

A
  • state should promote equality of opportunity
  • organise welfare
  • promote social justice
113
Q

how do modern liberals think the state should provide equality of opportunity?

A

through education and reductions in the influence of inherited privilege

114
Q

how did Rawls argue to heal divisions and inequality?

A

redistribution of wealth

115
Q

how did Rawls justify the expansion of the state?

A

as it would help achieve individual liberty

116
Q

how did modern liberals respond to collectivist policies?

A

many advocated for it

117
Q

what did Hayek argue about increased state intervention and collectivist policies?

A

that it was too fare behind the principles of classical liberalism and began to blur the distinctions between classical liberalism and socialism

118
Q

who did modern liberals face criticism from?

A

hayek (neo-liberal)

119
Q

what did Rawls believe the only way to achieve equality of opportunity was?

A

through an enlarged enabling state

120
Q

what do modern liberals agree that the regulating self-market is?

A

a myth

121
Q

what is rationalism?

A

a belief in human reason. each individual should be free to exercise their own judgement about their own interests

122
Q

what did Locke believe individuals are born as?

A

blank slate - tabula rasa

123
Q

where do we gain knowledge, according to Locke?

A

our experiences

124
Q

where should decisions come from?

A

logical conclusion based on evidence rather than faith and tradition

125
Q

how do liberals want to solve disputes?

A

reasoned debate and discussion

126
Q

what do liberals view war as?

A

a last resort

127
Q

in the early 20th century, wha were liberals at the forefront of?

A

supporting the creation of the League of Nations, leading to the United Nations

128
Q

do liberals support the European union?

A

yes, on the grounds that by surrounding some national sovereignty, member states derive more benefits through association with each other, such as access to large trading area

129
Q

what do classical liberals believe will happen because we are all rational?

A

individuals will form a social contract with the state

130
Q

what did Locke argue the purpose of a social contract was?

A

to uphold personal freedom, the government is created by the people and can be replaced if it fails to maintain the core values of liberty

131
Q

what is the mechanistic theory?

A

stipulates that our behaviour is determined by the interactions between individuals

132
Q

what did Locke argue was vital to society?

A

education, he believed the majority of an individual is formed by their education

133
Q

what do modern liberals disagree with classical and instead argue?

A

they believe humans are capable of higher and lower pleasures

134
Q

modern liberals believe humans are rational, what else does this include for them?

A

empathy

135
Q

what do liberals place an emphasis on in terms of equality and social justice?

A

equality of opportunity

136
Q

why do liberals accept different outcomes?

A

people have different abilities and potential which will cause different outcomes

137
Q

what do classical believe all individuals should be afforded as they are all born equal?

A

the same legal and political rights, known as formal equality

138
Q

what do classicals believe social inequality is for society?

A

beneficial for society as it gives people an incentive to work hard and make the most of their society

139
Q

to classical liberals, what is a good society?

A

meritocracy

140
Q

Who was William Gladstone?

A

British Liberal prime minister in 1875

141
Q

what did William Gladstone introduce?

A

competitive examinations for entry into civil service, ending the influence of aristocratic connections

142
Q

do classical liberals support full civil rights for everyone?

A

no - many didn’t afford the same rights and equality to women until Wollstonecraft suggested that women were no less rational

143
Q

what did modern liberals disagree with on Mill and his ideas of negative liberty?

A

argued that it wasn’t substantial enough for individuals to fulfil their potential

144
Q

what do modern liberals argue that liberty must be?

A

positive if social justice was to be achieved to combat negative socio-economic factors

145
Q

what did Rawls acknowledge about inequality of outcome?

A

that it was inevitable side effect of allowing all individuals to exercise their freedom

146
Q

what is liberal democracy?

A

combination of the rule of the people, focus of individual rights and liberty. constitutionalism

147
Q

what do classical want the state to protect as part of a liberal democracy?

A

negative freedoms

148
Q

what do classical see and the only thing limiting individuals?

A

the state as in the state of nature individuals were free from restraint

149
Q

where do classical liberals stop short of arguing the state should help?

A

those who are disadvantaged

150
Q

what did Thomas Jefferson say about an enlarged government?

A

‘when government grows, liberty withers’

151
Q

how would classical promote a liberal democracy?

A

through constitutionalism, codification, separation of the powers, and clear checks and balances

152
Q

why were classical concerned with the expansion of rights under a growing state?

A

they thought it had the potential to threaten natural rights like property

153
Q

what do modern liberals advocate for instead of representative government?

A

full democracy

154
Q

what view do all liberals take on human nature?

A

a positive view

155
Q

what do all liberals view individuals as having?

A

equal moral worth and unique abilities

156
Q

what do all liberals agree that humans are entitles do?

A

natural rights, and these shouldn’t be given to them by the government but everyone is entitled to them on the basis that they are human

157
Q

who’s writing prominently shows liberals positive views on human nature?

A

Locke and Mill

158
Q

where do liberals disagree on individualism? (Human nature)

A

classical believe in egotistical
modern believe in developmental

159
Q

where do liberals disagree on rationalism?

A

classical believe in utilitarianism
modern believe in higher and lower pleasures

160
Q

where do liberals disagree on tolerance?

A

classical believe in Mills harm principles
moderns do not believe this is enough

161
Q

what do all liberals believe about society?

A

that the individuals is more important than society as a whole

162
Q

do all liberals believe in foundational equality?

A

yes

163
Q

what do liberals think on capitalism?

A

all liberals believe in it and acknowledge the benefits it can have for the individualw

164
Q

what do liberals argue that capitalism is necessary for?

A

for the individuals to create an identity, through owning private property

165
Q

where do liberals disagree on what capitalism should look like?

A

classical want a free market with no state intervention
moderns want a keynesian economy

166
Q

if capitalism is left unchecked, what do modern liberals think this will cause?

A

more inequality and restricting individuals

167
Q

what did Keynes argue the state must do to the economy?

A

must steer the economy, manage demand to ensure full employment

UK Politics (5 decks)

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