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Exercise Physiology and Pharmacology > Bones, Skeleton, and Movement > Flashcards

Bones, Skeleton, and Movement Flashcards

1
Q

What makes up the axial skeleton?

A

The skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage (ribs and sternum).

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2
Q

How many bones in the axial skeleton?

A

80

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3
Q

What makes up the appendicular skeleton?

A

The bones that attach to the axial skeleton (appendages) and supporting bones.
ex. humerus, patella, femur, etc.

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4
Q

What is the main function of the axial skeleton?

A

To protect our internal organs.

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5
Q

What is the main function of the appendicular skeleton?

A

To provide movement.

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6
Q

Can the axial skeleton be involved in movement?

A

Yes it can be.

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7
Q

How many bones are there in the body?

A

206

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8
Q

Examples of long bones.

A

Femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, etc.

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9
Q

What type of bone is the main component of long bone?

A

Compact bone.

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10
Q

Explain the structure of a long bone.

A

A long shaft with two articular surfaces.

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11
Q

Give examples of short bones.

A

Wrist and ankle.

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12
Q

Explain the two layers of bone in a short bone.

A

A thin layer of compact bone with a spongy center.

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13
Q

What is the shape of a short bone?

A

Cube-shaped.

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14
Q

Give examples of flat bones.

A

Skull and sternum.

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15
Q

How does compact bone structure itself in a flat bone?

A

Parallel layers.

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16
Q

What types of bones does a flat bone contain?

A

A parallel layer of compact bone and a spongy centre.

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17
Q

Give examples of irregular bones.

A

Vertebrae and pelvis.

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18
Q

How do the types of different bone co-exist in an irregular bone?

A

Thing layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy centre.

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19
Q

Give an example of a sesamoid bone.

A

Patella.

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20
Q

What is the difference between sesamoid bone and the other bones in the body?

A

They are the only type that are connected through tendons, not joints.

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21
Q

Where do sesamoid bones exist?

A

They are embedded in tendon or muscle.

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22
Q

What do tendons connect?

A

Muscle to bone (sesamoid bones).

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23
Q

What do ligaments connect?

A

Bone to bone.

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24
Q

What is compact bone?

A

A dense outer layer of bone (tightly packed).

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25
Q

What is a spongy bone?

A

Internal network of bone that is still hard, but porous.

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26
Q

What is spongy bone known as?

A

Trabecular or cancellous bone.

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27
Q

What sits in the cavities of spongy bone?

A

Red marrow.

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28
Q

Where does spongy bone exist in a long bone?

A

At the ends of the shaft (proximal and distal epiphysis).

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29
Q

What does the metaphysis join?

A

The diaphysis (shaft) to the epiphysis (end of the long bone).

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30
Q

Where does articular cartilage exist in a long bone?

A

At both ends (epiphysis) of the long bone.

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31
Q

What is the purpose of articular cartilage?

A

It’s a white elastic tissue that allows bones to smoothly glide against one another. It absorbs shock and makes movement easier.

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32
Q

What does the medullary cavity contain?

A

Yellow bone marrow

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33
Q

What does yellow bone marrow contain?

A

Triglyceride (fat) storages.

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34
Q

What is the endosteum?

A

A thin membrane that lines the marrow cavity (yellow bone marrow).

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35
Q

What does the endosteum contain?

A

Connective tissue and bone-forming cells.

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36
Q

What is the periosteum?

A

A tough membrane covering the bone, but not the cartilage.

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37
Q

What does the periosteum contain?

A

Connective tissue and bone-forming cells.

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38
Q

What is the purpose of the periosteum?

A

It aids in protection, repair, nourishment, and attachment of ligaments and tendons. It supplies blood and nerves.

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39
Q

What is the epiphyseal line?

A

The closure of the epiphyseal plate in growing bone.

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40
Q

Where does growth occur in bones?

A

Activity of the epiphyseal plate is the only way the diaphysis can increase in length.

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41
Q

How does growth occur in bones?

A
  1. Cartilage cells are produced by mitosis on epiphyseal side of plate
  2. Cartilage cells are then destroyed and replaced by bone on the diaphyseal side of the plate
  3. Once growth is finished (18-21 ages), the epiphyseal plate closes
  4. Cartilage cells stop dividing and bones replaces the cartilage (epiphyseal line)
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42
Q

Is bone dead? Why or why not?

A

Bone isn’t dead because it’s capable of repair.

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43
Q

What is the purpose of spongy bone?

A

It’s light, thus allowing for the resistance of stress and transfer of force. It also supports and protects red bone marrow.

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44
Q

What does the central (Haversian) canals allow?

A

Canals for blood vessels to flow through the bone allowing for a supply of nutrients.

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45
Q

What is osteon?

A

The functional unit of compact bone.

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46
Q

What are lamellae?

A

Concentric rings of matrix that surround the Haversian canals.

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47
Q

What is the extracellular matrix of bone composed of?

A
  1. 25% water
  2. 25% collagen fibres
  3. 50% crystallised mineral salts
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48
Q

What is the purpose of collagen fibres in the ECM of bone?

A

Allows flexibility.

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49
Q

What is the purpose of crystallized mineral salts in the ECM of bone?

A

Allows hardness.

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50
Q

Give examples of crystallized mineral salts in the ECM of bone/

A

Hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate)

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51
Q

Calcification

A

Buildup of excess calcium in the body due to mineral deposition in the framework formed by collagen fibres.

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52
Q

What is an osteogenic cell?

A

A progenitor cell that undergoes cell division to form osteoblasts.

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53
Q

Where does the osteogenic cell exist?

A

In the inner periosteum, endosteum, and bone canals within blood vessels.

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54
Q

What do osteoblasts do?

A

They build bone by making and secreting collagen for the ECM. This begins the process of calcification.

TO HELP:
osteoBlasts Build Bone

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55
Q

What happens if an osteoblast becomes trapped within the ECM?

A

It becomes an osteocyte.

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56
Q

What are the most numerous cell type of bone?

A

Osteocytes.

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57
Q

What are the mature form of cell type of bone?

A

Osteocytes.

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58
Q

What do osteocytes do?

A

They maintain metabolism and exchange nutrients and waste with blood.

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59
Q

How do osteoclasts differ from other cell types of bone?

A

They come from a different progenitor cell, not the osteogenic cell rather fusion of monocytes (up to 50).

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60
Q

What do osteoclasts do?

A

They breakdown bone by releasing enzymes and acids that tear apart the ECM (resorption). This aids in the development, growth, maintenance, and repair of bone.

TO HELP:
osteoClasts Collapse bone

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61
Q

What is the difference between resorption and deposition of bone in the remodelling process?

A

Resorption refers to when bones are broken down and absorbed by the body. Deposition is when bones are formed through calcium input.

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62
Q

Where do osteocytes exist?

A

They exist and mature in lacuna.

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63
Q

What are lacuna?

A

Fluid-filled spaces between lamellae.

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64
Q

What does red bone marrow produce?

A

Red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells.

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65
Q

What does yellow bone marrow produce?

A

Some white blood cells.

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66
Q

What cells do yellow bone marrow contain?

A

They contain adipocytes and marrow stromal cells.

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67
Q

What do adipocytes do?

A

Store fat.

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68
Q

What do marrow stromal cells do?

A

They produce cartilage, fat, and bone.

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69
Q

Is all bone marrow the same at birth? What kind?

A

Yes, all bone marrow at birth is red due to the huge need for production of red and white blood cells.

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70
Q

What happens to the bone marrow as you age?

A

There is the conversion of red to yellow bone marrow.

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71
Q

Where does red bone marrow exist?

A

In flat bones and the spongy proximal ends of femur and humerus.

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72
Q

What may happen if marrow adipocytes increase?

A

They can restrict haemopoiesis (blood cell production) and osteoblast activity.

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73
Q

How does marrow adipose tissue act as an endocrine organ?

A

By increasing serum adiponectin.

74
Q

How does the buildup of yellow bone marrow affect the body?

A

Poor metabolic and cardiovascular outcomes.

75
Q

What did the MRI of vertebral marrow fat of different exercise intensities show?

A

Runners, but not cyclists had lower vertebral fat fractions than non-sporting control, thus exercise aids in reducing the amount of yellow bone marrow.

76
Q

How are joints classified?

A

Based on structure and function.

77
Q

Fibrous joints

A

Bones joined by fibrous connective tissue rich in collagen fibres.

78
Q

Give an example of a fibrous joint.

A

Coronal suture.

79
Q

Cartilaginous joints

A

Held together by cartilage (no synovial cavity).

80
Q

Give an example of a cartilaginous joint.

A

Pubic symphysis.

81
Q

Describe the movement of fibrous and cartilaginous joints.

A

Little to no movement.

82
Q

Synovial joints

A

Bones held together by connective tissue by connective tissue within a capsule and often by ligaments.

83
Q

Describe the movement of synovial joints.

A

They allow movement.

84
Q

What surrounds a synovial joint?

A

An articular capsule (cartilage).

85
Q

What is the purpose of articular cartilage?

A

It reduces friction and shock when bones glide past one another.

86
Q

What does the synovial membrane produce?

A

Synovial fluid.

87
Q

What is the purpose of synovial fluid?

A

It’s used for lubrication of the joint.

88
Q

How does exercise aid in the purpose of the synovial fluid?

A

Warming-up encourages the production and secretion of synovial fluid. More synovial fluid means less stress for the joint.

89
Q

What do phagocytic cells do in the synovial fluid?

A

They remove debris and microbes from the area.

90
Q

Where do ligaments exist in reference to the articular capsule?

A

Inside or outside the articular capsule.

91
Q

What are ligaments and tendons primarily made of?

A

Collagen

92
Q

How do fibroblasts differ in ligaments and tendons?

A

In ligaments, fibroblasts are more dispersed and in tendons, they exist in parallel rows.

93
Q

How does collagen differ in ligaments and tendons?

A

In ligaments, collagen is less well-organized than in tendons.

94
Q

Describe the elasticity of ligaments and tendons.

A

Ligaments are elastic/strong whereas tendons are non-elastic/tough.

95
Q

Why are tendons non-elastic?

A

Since tendons transmit contractile movement of a muscle to move bone at joint, they are non-elastic to prevent a loss of energy.

96
Q

What are collagen molecules made of?

A

Triple helices of polypeptide chains.

97
Q

What is the hierarchical structure of a tendon/ligament?

A

Collagen > fibril > fibre > fascicle > tendon/ligament

98
Q

What is cartilage made up of (3 parts)?

A
  1. Collagen
  2. Elastin fibres
  3. Proteoglycan (heavily glycosylated proteins)
99
Q

What is a glycosylated protein?

A

Adding sugar chains (carbohydrates) to proteins.

100
Q

What is the matrix of cartilage produced by?

A

Chondroblasts

101
Q

What do chondroblasts mature into?

A

Chondrocytes

102
Q

Is cartilage non-vascular? What does this mean?

A

Yes, cartilage is non-vascular, thus containing no blood vessels.

103
Q

What is the most abundant cartilage?

A

Hyaline cartilage

104
Q

Where does hyaline cartilage exist?

A

Bronchi, larynx, nose trachea, ends of long bones, and fetal skeleton.

105
Q

Give an example of hyaline cartilage?

A

Articular cartilage.

106
Q

What types of cartilage does hyaline cartilage contain?

A

Collagen

107
Q

What is the purpose of hyaline cartilage?

A

It supports and reinforces its structure, cushions, and resist repetitive stress.

108
Q

What type of cartilage does elastic cartilage contain?

A

Collagen and elastin.

109
Q

What is the purpose of elastic cartilage?

A

To allow flexibility and maintain the shape of the structure.

110
Q

Where does elastic cartilage not exist?

A

Anything associated with bone.

111
Q

Where does elastic cartilage occur?

A

In the external ear and the epiglottis.

112
Q

What is the strongest type of cartilage?

A

Fibrocartilage.

113
Q

What cartilage exist in fibrocartilage?

A

Thick collagen fibres.

114
Q

What is the purpose of fibrocartilage?

A

Great tensile strength and the ability to absorb compressive shock.

115
Q

Where does fibrocartilage exist?

A

Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, discs of knee joint, etc.

116
Q

What is microscopic failure?

A

Single or several fibres are torn.

117
Q

What is macroscopic failure?

A

The whole tendon is torn.

118
Q

What is non-surgical treatment for tendon failure?

A

RICE
Rest, Ice, Compression, and Elevation.

119
Q

What is the surgical repair for a torn ACL (anterior cruciate ligament)?

A

Autograft or allograft, typically a patellar or hamstring tendon. The new insertion is screwed or stapled into place.

120
Q

What is the difference between an autograft and allograft?

A

An autograft is a graft of tissue from one portion to another of the individual’s body whereas an allograft is from a donor to a recipient of the same species.

121
Q

What happens to the collagen of tendons when exercising?

A

There is an increased turnover of collagen and their cross links since anabolism predominates.

122
Q

What is anabolism?

A

The synthesis of complex molecules from simple ones.

TIP TO REMEMBER:
think anabolic steroids, which BUILD muscle.

123
Q

What happens to tendon fibroblasts in response to exercise?

A

They alter the expression of ECM to allow more stretch.

124
Q

What is the mechanical adaption of tendons?

A

The remodelling of the tendon’s components in response to strength and endurance training.

125
Q

What happens to ligaments during endurance training?

A

Increased strength and flexibility.

126
Q

What happens to cartilage during endurance training?

A

Increased thickness (hyaline cartilage), which aids in protection to reduce the risk of injury and osteoarthritis.

127
Q

What is osteoarthritis?

A

When the tissue of the joints break down over time.

128
Q

What happens to synovial fluid during endurance training?

A

Increased production which leads to greater lubrication of the joints (bones glide more easily), greater cushioning and shock absorption, which is important when great stress is placed amongst ligaments during training.

129
Q

What are the 6 different kinds of synovial joints?

A

Ball-and-socket, pivot, hinge, condyloid, planar, and saddle.

130
Q

Where does ball-and-and socket synovial joints exist?

A

Femur and scapula.

131
Q

Where do pivot synovial joints exist?

A

Radius and ulna.

132
Q

Where do hinge synovial joints exist?

A

Humerus and ulna

133
Q

Where do condyloid synovial joints exist?

A

Radius and carpals.

134
Q

Where do planar synovial joints exist?

A

Intercarpals in the hands and toes.

135
Q

Where do saddle synovial joints exist?

A

In the thumb between the carpal (trapezium) and the metacarpal.

136
Q

What types of movements do synovial joints perform?

A

GRASP
Gliding, rotation, angular, special.

137
Q

Where does special movement occur for synovial joints?

A

Only at certains joints = plantar flexion in the ankle.

138
Q

Explain the gliding movement of synovial joints.

A

There is no significant alteration in angle between bones as flat bone surfaces move past one another.

139
Q

Where does the gliding movement of synovial joints occur?

A

The joints of the carpal and tarsal bones in the hand.

140
Q

Explain the rotation movement of synovial joints.

A

The bone rotates around its own longitudinal axis. There is lateral rotation (away from body) and medial rotation (towards midline of body).

141
Q

Where does the rotation movement of synovial joints occur?

A

Movement of the head side to side.

142
Q

Explain the angular movement of synovial joints.

A

When the angle between the bones of a joint changes. This involves flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction.

143
Q

What is flexion?

A

There is a decrease in angle between the articulating bones.
ex. moving the forearm upward at the elbow

144
Q

What is extension?

A

Increase in angle between the articulating bones to often restore the anatomical position.
ex. straightening a limb

145
Q

What is hyperextension?

A

Movement beyond the anatomical position.
ex. moving the neck back to look upward or bending the wrist so the hand moves away from the forearm

146
Q

What is anatomical position?

A

The positioning of the body when standing upright. The feet are parallel and flat on the floor (facing forward), and palms face forward with the arms hanging on either side of the body.

147
Q

What is abduction?

A

Movement of a bone away from the midline.
ex. moving arms or legs laterally to lift them straight out to the side

HINT:
abduction is taking something AWAY, so moving AWAY from the body

148
Q

What is adduction?

A

Movement of a bone towards the midline.
ex. lims (arms and legs) move inward after abduction

149
Q

What is circumduction?

A

The movement of a distal (farther) part of a bone in a circle (looks like a cone).
ex. moving the arm in a circular motion

150
Q

What anatomical planes do angular motions move in?

A

Sagittal, coronal, and transverse plane.

151
Q

What is the sagittal plane?

A

Divides the body in half for the top of the head, into left and right sections.

152
Q

What is the coronal plane?

A

Separates the front (anterior) and back (posterior) sections of the body. Perpendicular to the sagittal plane.

153
Q

What is the transverse plane?

A

Runs through the middle of the body separating it into the upper (superior) and lower (inferior) halves of the body.

154
Q

What anatomical positions do angular motions move in?

A

Lateral and medial from the midline (middle of the body).

155
Q

What is linear motion?

A

The same speed and direction.
ex. diving into a pool, body moves forward (like a pencil)

156
Q

What is angular motion?

A

Movement around a fixed point of axis that is circular.
ex. swinging around a bar in gymnastics

157
Q

What is general motion?

A

A combination of linear and angular.
ex. running where the trunk moves in a linear motion due to a result of rotary motions from the legs.

158
Q

How do muscles provide force and movement?

A

Using lever systems

159
Q

What is first class lever?

A

The fulcrum is between the effort and resistance (weight of the body part).
ex. in the neck when raising your head; neck muscles provide effort backwards, the neck is the fulcrum, and the resistance is the weight of the head forward

160
Q

What is a second class lever?

A

The resistance and effort are on the same side of the fulcrum with resistance being closer.
ex. standing on your tiptoes; the ball of the foot is the fulcrum; the resistance is the weight of the body, and the effort is the muscle in the calf muscles; works upwards

161
Q

What is a third class lever?

A

The resistance and effort are on the same side of the fulcrum with effort being closer.
ex. lifting weights; the elbow joint is the fulcrum; the resistance comes from the weight in your hand; and the effort is the bicep pulling upwards

162
Q

How do muscles work in antagonistic pairs?

A

One muscle of the pair contracts to move the body part and the other muscle in the pair then contracts to return the body part back to the original position.
ex. bicep contracting for flexion of the forearm and tricep relaxing for extension

163
Q

What is the purpose of bone remodelling?

A

It allows maintenance in response to damage caused by normal stresses and strains of movement; and changes in response to changes in stresses and strains (exercise).

164
Q

What is turnover of skeleton?

A

The process of resorption followed by replacement of bone.

165
Q

What are extracellular levels of calcium kept at?

A

1-2 mM

166
Q

What does the parathyroid hormone do?

A

It increases the amount of calcium in blood (extracellular) by allowing bones to release more calcium (breakdown; calcium mobilization for the bone); intestine absorb more calcium from the food you eat; and kidneys keep calcium in your blood instead of urination.

167
Q

What does calcitonin do?

A

It decreases levels of extracellular calcium in the blood by inhibiting osteoclasts (no breakdown of bone) and decreases the amount of calcium that the kidneys reabsorb and release back into your bloodstream.

TIP:
calciBONEin, lowers calcium in the blood and more in the bone

168
Q

What does regulation of extracellular calcium act upon (3 things)?

A
  1. Calcium mobilization from bone (increase = more leaves the bone, decrease = more stays in the bone)
  2. Calcium resorption in the kidneys (increase = more back in the bloodstream)
  3. Calcium absorption in the intestines, specifically small (increase = more calcium reabsorbed back into the bloodstream)
169
Q

What is bone mineral density (BMD) an indicator of?

A

Bone strength by measuring the amount of calcium and other minerals that exist in your bone.

170
Q

What does a high BMD mean?

A

The bones with more minerals are denser, so they tend to be stronger and less likely to break.

171
Q

What is osteoporosis?

A

Bone resorption outpaces bone deposition, thus there is a lower bone mass (less minerals). There is reduce cortical bone thickness and reduce structural integrity; thus more susceptible to fracture.

172
Q

In what individuals does osteoporosis occur in and why?

A

Most often in women after menopause (50+) because of the drop is oestrogen (leads to more bone resorption).

173
Q

What does increased bone turnover mean?

A

More is broken down, thus resorption occurs more often than deposition. This can lead to osteoporosis.

174
Q

What is an increase in collagen turnover mean?

A

Collagen is broken down more into amino acids.

175
Q

What are the treatments for osteoporosis?

A

Increase in dietary intake of calcium and vitamin D; exercise; hormone replacement therapy (oestrogen and progesterone); and oral (or IV) bisphosphonates, which accumulate in bone through calcium binding and are ingested by osteoclasts causing death through apoptosis.

176
Q

How does the BMD of athletes compare to the normal person?

A

Much greater which is due to the stress their muscles and tendon go under through weight-bearing activities. As a result, bone produce more bone tissue to become stronger and more dense.

177
Q

What activities are more effective for BMD?

A

Those that create a dynamic strain on bone, such as high-impact activities like jumping.

178
Q

What is mechanotransduction?

A

Linking mechanical forces to cellular response and bone remodelling.

179
Q

Explain the pathway of mechanotransduction for exercise.

A

Exercise (dynamic/high-impact/resistance) > stress/mechanical load on bone > altered fluid flow in lacuna-canalicular fluid > osteocytes detect shear stress and hydrostatic pressure waves > hormonal/biochemical messenger > bone cell recruitment (osteoblasts and osteoclasts)

180
Q

What are the sensors that osteocytes detect for stress?

A

Integrins and cytoskeletal elements, and stretch-activated membrane ion channels.

181
Q

What structure releases PTH?

A

The parathyroid glands

182
Q

What structure releases calcitonin?

A

C-cells of the thyroid gland

Exercise Physiology and Pharmacology (9 decks)

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