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15-50 Flashcards

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1
Q

What paradox does social science face compared to natural sciences?

A

Social phenomena are more difficult to measure and predict due to human agency and interpretations.

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2
Q

What are the two main approaches in social science?

A

Naturalism and Interpretivism.

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3
Q

What does naturalism in social science assume?

A

Social phenomena have objective structures that can be studied through observation and measurement.

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4
Q

What is a significant challenge for naturalism?

A

Understanding human behavior through universal laws like in physics.

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5
Q

What is the focus of interpretivism?

A

Understanding social reality from the perspective of individuals.

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6
Q

What qualitative methods does interpretivism use?

A

Interviews, ethnography, and historical analysis.

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7
Q

What does the empiricist view of concepts emphasize?

A

Concepts should be tied to empirical observation and clearly defined.

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8
Q

What is realism in the context of theoretical concepts?

A

Theories should aim to describe real, underlying structures of society.

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9
Q

What is instrumentalism?

A

Theories are just useful tools for making predictions, not necessarily reflections of reality.

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10
Q

What does the problem of construct validity address?

A

How do we know if a theoretical concept accurately represents reality?

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11
Q

What are ideal types according to Max Weber?

A

Abstract models that help categorize and analyze social phenomena.

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12
Q

What is hermeneutics?

A

The study of interpretation, applied to social science.

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13
Q

What is thick description as defined by Clifford Geertz?

A

A detailed account of social behavior that includes its meaning within a cultural context.

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14
Q

What is the difference between realism and relativism in social science?

A

Realism seeks objective truths, while relativism posits that social reality is constructed by cultural perspectives.

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15
Q

What does Klein argue about human nature and political polarization?

A

Humans are wired for in-group and out-group thinking due to evolutionary instincts.

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16
Q

What is the role of status competition in Klein’s argument?

A

Humans compete for social status, which can overshadow broader societal well-being.

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17
Q

What critique does Metcalf offer regarding Klein’s approach?

A

Klein oversimplifies political polarization by attributing it solely to evolutionary psychology.

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18
Q

What does Metcalf argue about the role of political actors?

A

Political polarization is influenced by deliberate decisions made by political elites and institutions.

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19
Q

What is the concern with Darwinian explanations in politics according to Metcalf?

A

They risk justifying harmful behaviors as inevitable rather than recognizing them as deliberate strategies.

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20
Q

What is the key question regarding the nature of scientific change?

A

Is there a pattern in how scientific ideas change?

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21
Q

What did logical empiricists believe about science?

A

Science is objective and rational, based on logic and empirical evidence.

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22
Q

What is Kuhn’s concept of normal science?

A

Scientists work within a paradigm, solving puzzles without questioning the underlying assumptions.

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23
Q

What triggers a scientific revolution according to Kuhn?

A

Accumulation of anomalies leading to a crisis and the emergence of a new paradigm.

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24
Q

What is incommensurability in Kuhn’s theory?

A

Different paradigms are not directly comparable due to lack of a common language.

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25
What does the theory-ladenness of data imply?
All data is shaped by theoretical frameworks; there are no neutral observational facts.
26
What did Kuhn argue about different paradigms?
Different paradigms are incommensurable—they have no common language for direct comparison.
27
Give an example of incommensurability in paradigms.
Newton’s concept of mass and Einstein’s concept of mass are not identical.
28
What did critics argue regarding Kuhn's view on paradigms?
Critics argued that his view was too extreme since science still progresses and comparisons are possible.
29
What is the theory-ladenness of data?
All data is shaped by theory; scientists from different paradigms see the world differently.
30
What is the implication of Kuhn's theory-ladenness on objective truth?
It suggests that truth itself is paradigm-relative.
31
What is one key aspect of Kuhn's legacy?
There is no strict logical method to determine which paradigm is better.
32
How did Kuhn's work influence fields beyond science?
It influenced sociology, anthropology, and the humanities.
33
What is social constructionism in the context of Kuhn's ideas?
His ideas contributed to debates on whether science is a social construct.
34
What is the first paradigm in the social sciences according to Kuhn?
A single dominant framework exists in a discipline.
35
Describe Paradigm 2 in the social sciences.
Different paradigms can exist in the same discipline, but they are incommensurable.
36
What does Paradigm 3 represent?
A loose definition where paradigms are seen as schools of thought or theoretical perspectives.
37
What characterizes psychology as a multi-paradigm science?
The behaviorist approach came close to a strict Kuhnian paradigm but never excluded other approaches.
38
Why is economics considered a strong example of Paradigm 2?
Economics has multiple competing traditions that coexist.
39
What did John B. Watson's behaviorist approach reject?
Introspection, which focused on consciousness and subjective mental states.
40
What did Watson propose for psychology?
Psychology should focus on observable behavior.
41
What was the significance of Watson's experiments on rats?
They demonstrated that behavior is modifiable based on environmental factors.
42
What was the outcome of the paradigm shift from introspection to behaviorism?
Psychology redefined itself as a purely objective experimental science.
43
What are the implications of the shift to behaviorism in psychology?
It reflects debates about what counts as scientific knowledge.
44
What does Kuhn mean by 'normal science'?
Consensus on paradigm with no discussion about fundamental questions.
45
What is the crisis phase in Kuhn's model?
More scientists become convinced that anomalies cannot be solved within the existing paradigm.
46
What does Kuhn mean by incommensurability?
Paradigms are incommensurable, with no neutral measuring stick for comparison.
47
What does behaviorism deny in explaining behavior?
The relevance of mental phenomena.
48
What challenges did behaviorism face?
It could not account for conscious control of actions or the development of language.
49
What is the method of 'verstehen' according to Wilhelm Dilthey?
Understanding the life of the soul through interpretation and empathy.
50
What is the distinction between 'erklären' and 'verstehen'?
'Erklären' refers to explaining nature, while 'verstehen' refers to understanding human intentions.
51
What is the ideal of authenticity in interpretive methodology?
Qualitative research aims to capture the subjective perspective of subjects.
52
What is reflexivity in qualitative research?
The researcher’s perspective is made explicit to address its influence on the research process.
53
What does the principle of charity entail?
The interpreter must attribute some true beliefs and similar criteria of good reasoning.
54
What does bounded rationality mean?
Human rationality is limited by cognitive capacities and evolution.
55
What is the significance of cultural relativism as discussed by Winch?
Truth and rationality are relative to cultures, leading to incommensurability.
56
Wat is de methode van participant observation?
Onderzoeker dompelt zich onder in de cultuur of gemeenschap die bestudeerd wordt. ## Footnote Deze methode helpt bij het verkrijgen van diepere inzichten in sociale praktijken.
57
Wat is tekstanalyse?
Analyse van historische documenten, mediaberichten of andere teksten. ## Footnote Tekstanalyse is cruciaal voor het begrijpen van culturele en sociale contexten.
58
Wat is reflexiviteit in onderzoek?
De onderzoeker beïnvloedt onvermijdelijk het onderzoeksproces en de resultaten. ## Footnote Dit vraagt om een kritische reflectie op de eigen achtergrond en aannames.
59
Is rationaliteit universeel, of moet het begrepen worden binnen een specifieke culturele context?
Het moet begrepen worden binnen een specifieke culturele context. ## Footnote Dit roept vragen op over de interpretatie van schijnbaar irrationeel gedrag.
60
Wat houdt de 'Principle of Charity' in?
Onderzoekers moeten er in eerste instantie van uitgaan dat mensen rationeel handelen binnen hun eigen context. ## Footnote Dit helpt bij het begrijpen van schijnbaar irrationele praktijken.
61
Welke twee factoren beïnvloeden menselijke cognitie volgens moderne cognitiewetenschap?
Culturele overdracht en besluitvorming. ## Footnote Dit suggereert dat zowel culturele als universele mechanismen een rol spelen in interpretatie.
62
Wat zijn de beperkingen van interpretatieve methoden?
Reflexiviteit, rationaliteit en cognitieve beperkingen moeten serieus worden genomen. ## Footnote Interpretatie vereist een systematische methodologie.
63
Wat is de betekenis van intentionaliteit in het menselijk handelen?
Mensen handelen met intenties en doelen. ## Footnote Dit is cruciaal voor het begrijpen van menselijke acties.
64
Wat is het verschil tussen oorzaken en redenen volgens Donald Davidson?
Redenen kunnen als verklaringen dienen, maar zijn ze ook oorzaken? ## Footnote Dit onderscheid helpt bij het begrijpen van menselijke acties.
65
Wat is een Nash-evenwicht?
Een situatie waarin geen enkele speler baat heeft bij eenzijdige verandering van strategie. ## Footnote Dit concept is cruciaal in speltheorie.
66
Wat zijn coördinatieproblemen?
Situaties waarin samenwerking gunstig is, maar moeilijk te bereiken zonder expliciete afspraken. ## Footnote Dit kan leiden tot suboptimale uitkomsten in sociale interacties.
67
Wat is de betekenis van 'bounded rationality' volgens Herbert Simon?
Mensen hebben beperkte cognitieve capaciteit en maken keuzes op basis van heuristieken. ## Footnote Dit stelt dat volledige optimalisatie vaak niet mogelijk is.
68
Wat is methodologisch individualisme?
Sociale fenomenen moeten uiteindelijk verklaard worden door de keuzes en acties van individuen. ## Footnote Dit benadrukt de rol van individuen in sociale processen.
69
Wat is holisme in sociale wetenschappen?
Sociale structuren en instituties hebben een eigen causaliteit die niet gereduceerd kan worden tot individuele keuzes. ## Footnote Dit biedt een andere kijk op de interactie tussen individu en samenleving.
70
Wat is de rol van agency in menselijke acties?
Mensen maken keuzes en kunnen sociale normen en structuren uitdagen. ## Footnote Dit houdt in dat agency meer is dan alleen het maken van keuzes.
71
Wat is de 'covering law model of explanation' (CLM)?
Om een gebeurtenis uit te leggen, moet men laten zien hoe deze volgt uit algemene natuurwetten. ## Footnote Dit model is ontwikkeld door Carl Hempel.
72
Wat is het verschil tussen naturalisme en non-naturalisme in sociale wetenschappen?
Als CLM juist is, zouden sociale wetenschappen de natuurwetenschappen moeten weerspiegelen. ## Footnote Dit roept vragen op over de aard van menselijke gedragingen.
73
Wat houdt de normativiteit van redenen in volgens Peter Winch?
Het toont aan waarom een actie gepast of gerechtvaardigd is, niet dat het de actie heeft veroorzaakt. ## Footnote Dit benadrukt de culturele en taalkundige context van redenen.
74
Wat zijn de aannames van rationele keuze-theorie?
* Volledige en consistente ordening van voorkeuren * Volledige informatie over acties en uitkomsten * Volledige informatie over waarschijnlijkheden en verwachte uitkomsten ## Footnote Deze aannames zijn cruciaal voor het model van rationele keuze.
75
Wat is het Prisoner's Dilemma?
Een situatie waarin rationele actoren paradoxaal slechter af kunnen zijn als ze alleen naar hun eigenbelang kijken. ## Footnote Dit illustreert de uitdagingen van samenwerking.
76
Wat zijn de beperkingen van rationele keuze-theorie (RCT)?
* Mensen berekenen niet altijd verwachte nutten * Mensen hebben niet altijd volledige informatie * Verschillende doelen zijn niet incommensurabel ## Footnote Deze beperkingen tonen de psychologische onwaarschijnlijkheid van RCT aan.
77
Wat is de kritiek van Amartya Sen op RCT?
De agent in RCT is egoïstisch en houdt geen rekening met de zorgen voor anderen tenzij het hen ten goede komt. ## Footnote Dit biedt een bredere kijk op agency en menselijke motivaties.
78
Wat is het verschil tussen sympathie en toewijding volgens Sen?
* Sympathie: zorg voor anderen beïnvloedt eigen welzijn * Toewijding: bereidheid om iets te doen omdat men het verkeerd vindt, ongeacht eigen welzijn ## Footnote Dit benadrukt de complexiteit van menselijke motivatie.
79
Wat zijn de implicaties van het onderzoek naar reciprocity en samenwerking in speltheorie?
Mensen waarderen wederkerigheid en samenwerking, zelfs als het hen niets oplevert. ## Footnote Dit wijst op de sociale dimensies van menselijk gedrag.

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