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15 CONTROL AND COORDINATION Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the two main communication systems that control and coordinate activities in the body?

A

The endocrine (hormonal) system and the nervous system

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2
Q

What does the endocrine system consist of?

A

All the endocrine glands in the body together with the hormones they secrete

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3
Q

How are hormones released into the body?

A

Hormones are produced and released from endocrine glands into the blood

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4
Q

What are endocrine glands also known as?

A

Ductless glands

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5
Q

What type of functions are hormones ideal for controlling?

A

Functions that do not require quick responses

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6
Q

What are examples of peptide hormones?

A
  • Insulin
  • Glucagon
  • ADH
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7
Q

What is the central nervous system (CNS) comprised of?

A

The brain and the spinal cord

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8
Q

What makes up the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

A

The spinal and cranial nerves

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9
Q

What are neurones also known as?

A

Nerve cells

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10
Q

What do neurones transmit?

A

Information in the form of nerve impulses or electrical impulses

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11
Q

What structures are found in all neurones?

A
  • Cell body
  • Dendrites
  • Axon
  • Myelin sheath
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12
Q

What is the function of the myelin sheath?

A

To speed up transmission of nerve impulses through saltatory conduction

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13
Q

What are the gaps on the neurones between Schwann cells called?

A

Nodes of Ranvier

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14
Q

What is the function of sensory neurones?

A

Transmit impulses from receptors to the CNS

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15
Q

What is the structure of sensory neurones?

A
  • One long axon
  • Cell body near the source of stimuli or in a ganglion
  • Lots of mitochondria and ribosomes
  • Nodes of Ranvier may be present
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16
Q

What is the function of motor neurones?

A

Transmit impulses from the CNS to the effectors (muscles and glands)

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17
Q

What is the structure of motor neurones?

A
  • One very long axon
  • Cell body within the spinal cord or brain
  • Synaptic knobs present
  • Lots of mitochondria and vesicles
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18
Q

What is the function of intermediate neurones?

A

Transmit impulses from sensory neurones to motor neurones

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19
Q

What are receptor cells?

A

Cells that respond to a stimulus by initiating an action potential

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20
Q

What do receptor cells convert energy into?

A

Energy in an electrical impulse in a neurone

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21
Q

What is resting potential?

A

The potential difference in an axon that is not transmitting an impulse, about -70mV

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22
Q

What maintains resting potential?

A
  • More Na+ outside than inside
  • More K+ inside than outside
  • Na+/K+ pump
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23
Q

What is an action potential?

A

A brief change in potential difference from -70mV to +30mV across the axon membrane

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24
Q

What causes depolarization during an action potential?

A

Inward movement of Na+ ions

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25
What is the all-or-none law?
If depolarization does not reach the threshold potential, no action potential occurs
26
What is repolarization?
Returning of the potential difference across the axon membrane to resting potential
27
What is hyperpolarization?
When the potential difference briefly becomes more negative than resting potential
28
What is the refractory period?
The recovery period when an axon is unresponsive to a stimulus
29
What is the purpose of the myelin sheath?
To increase the speed of impulses via saltatory conduction
30
What is the synaptic cleft?
The small gap between two neurones
31
What is a cholinergic synapse?
A synapse that uses Acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter
32
What happens when an action potential reaches the synaptic knob?
It stimulates the opening of Ca²⁺ voltage-gated channels
33
What is the first step in the function of a cholinergic synapse?
Action potential reaches synaptic knob
34
What happens to ACh after it binds to receptors on the post-synaptic membrane?
It causes ligand-gated Na⁺ channels to open
35
What is the importance of synapses in the nervous system?
* Ensure one-way transmission * Allow connections between neurones
36
What is the primary function of synapses in the nervous system?
Synapses ensure one-way transmission of impulses ## Footnote Neurotransmitters are released on one side and receptors are present on the other.
37
How do synapses contribute to the interconnection of nerve pathways?
Synapses allow neurons to connect via neurotransmitters with many other neurons ## Footnote This increases the range of possible responses to stimuli.
38
What is a reflex arc?
A nerve pathway along which impulses are transmitted from a receptor to an effector without involving conscious parts of the brain.
39
What structures on the tongue are responsible for detecting taste?
Papillae covered with taste buds containing chemoreceptors.
40
What is the role of Na+ in taste detection?
Na+ diffuses through specific ion channels in chemoreceptors, leading to depolarization of the membrane.
41
What is the receptor potential?
The increase in positive charge inside the cell due to depolarization.
42
What triggers the release of neurotransmitters in chemoreceptors?
The opening of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels due to sufficient stimulation by Na+.
43
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle.
44
How is skeletal muscle described in terms of stimulation?
Skeletal muscle is described as neurogenic because it contracts on stimulation by a nerve impulse.
45
What is the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) in muscle fibers?
SR stores calcium ions that are released on stimulation.
46
What is a sarcomere?
A subunit of a myofibril between two Z lines.
47
What are the two types of protein filaments in a sarcomere?
Myosin (thick filament) and actin (thin filament).
48
What is the sliding filament theory?
The theory that muscle contraction occurs by the sliding of actin over myosin filaments.
49
What is the role of ATP in muscle contraction?
ATP provides energy for muscle contraction through hydrolysis.
50
What is the neuromuscular junction?
The synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber.
51
What triggers the closing of the Venus flytrap?
Deflection of two trichomes in rapid succession or one trichome touched twice within 20-35 seconds.
52
What is the role of Ca2+ in the Venus flytrap response?
Ca2+ enters cells, generating a receptor potential that leads to the closing of the trap.
53
What are plant hormones also known as?
Plant growth regulators.
54
What is the primary auxin in plants?
IAA (Indole 3-acetic acid).
55
How do auxins promote cell elongation?
They bind to receptors, activating proton pumps that lower pH and activate expansins.
56
What are gibberellins primarily involved in?
Promoting cell expansion and seed germination.
57
Fill in the blank: The ____________ is the cytoplasm of the muscle fiber containing many mitochondria.
Sarcoplasm
58
True or False: Cardiac muscle requires nerve stimulation to contract.
False.
59
What are gibberellins?
Plant hormones synthesized in most parts of the plant, more accumulated in young leaves, seeds, and stems.
60
What processes do gibberellins promote?
* Cell expansion * Seed germination
61
What is the effect of gibberellins on seed dormancy?
They break dormancy.
62
Fill in the blank: The embryo of a seed grows into a _______ when the seed germinates.
[seedling]
63
What surrounds the embryo of a seed?
Endosperm
64
What is the role of the aleurone layer in seed germination?
It is a protein-rich layer that is stimulated by gibberellins to produce amylase enzyme.
65
What triggers the production of gibberellins in the seed?
Absorption of water.
66
What enzyme is produced by the aleurone layer due to gibberellins?
Amylase enzyme.
67
What does the amylase enzyme do?
It digests starch into maltose, which is then digested into glucose.
68
What is the final product of starch digestion during germination?
Glucose.
69
What is done with glucose during seed germination?
It is respired to release energy used for germination.
70
Fill in the blank: The endosperm is surrounded by a tough outermost protective layer called the _______.
[seed coat/Testa]

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