Gender descriptions

Question 1

Sex

Answer 1

-biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy
-determined by chromosomes: men=XY, women= XX
-these chromosomes influence hormones and anatomy
-therefore sex is innate and the result of nature

Question 2

Gender

Answer 2

-psychological and cultural difference between males and females including attitudes, behaviours and social roles
-refers to a persons psychosocial status as either masculine or feminine
-influenced by social norms and cultural expectations
-gender partly influenced by environment, so partly due to nuture

Question 3

Batista family
(gender can be fluid)

Answer 3

-4 children who identified as girls at birth
-when reached puberty, vaginas closed and grew testes and penis
-genetic disorder where during prenatal development, they missed the introduction of dihydrotestosterone which externalises male genitalia
-at puberty, dihydrotestosterone was produces and true sex was revealed

Question 4

Intersex

Answer 4

-where children are exposed to hormonal imbalances in the womb, so their genitals appear neither male nor female
-parents are encouraged to opt for surgery to make sex clear
-1.7% are intersex and most are unaware of the condition until puberty or find themselves infertile in adulthood

Question 5

Sex role stereotypes

Answer 5

-set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for males and females in a given society
-they are communicated and reinforced by media
-parents, peers and media are agents of socialisation and support stereotypical expectations
-some stereotypes have no basis eg. women love shopping, others supported by bioogical brain differences eg. women better at multitasking as they have thicker corpus callosum
-Ingalhalikar study

Question 6

Ingalhalikar study

Answer 6

-scanned 949 men and women brains using MRI
-mapped connections if different parts of the brain
-found women have better connection between hemispheres
-mens brains show more intense activity in individual parts especially cerebellum
-concluded female brain wired to cope with multiple tasks at once whereas male brains focus on one more complex task

Question 7

The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)

Answer 7

Bem
-first systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale of 60 traits (20 masc, 20 fem, 20 neutral) to produce scores across 2 dimensions (masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated)
-rate on scale from 1-7 where one is never true for me and 7 is always true
-numerical scores for masc and fem items are added and then given a score for masc, fem or andygynous
-masc items: athletic, ambitious, aggressive
-fem items: affectionate, gentle, warm
-neutral items: conscientious, friendly, reliable

Question 7

Evidence for stereotyped behaviour

Answer 7

Smith and Lloyd
-when playing with children, adults provided children with stereotypical boys and girls toys based on appearance

Question 7

Androgyny

Answer 7

-displaying a balance of male and female characteristics in one’s personality
-Sandra Bem- high androgyny is associated with psychological wellbeing as better equipped to adapt to a range of situations

Question 8

Role of chromosomes

Answer 8

-found in nucleus of cells and carry genetic info in the form of genes
-23 pairs, the last are the sex chromosome xx=female xy=male
-made DNA, genes are short sections of DNA that determine characteristics
-all normal egg cells have an X chromosome, half sperm carry X, half Y
-the Y carries a gene called SRY (sex determining region Y) which causes testes to develop and produce androgens

Question 9

Role of hormones

Answer 9

-chromosomes determine a persons sex but hormones can influence gender development
-prenatally hormones cause development of reproductive organs
-at puberty hormonal activity triggers development of secondary characteristics such as pubic hair, breasts
-usually produce same hormones but in different quantities eg. males produce androgens such as testosterone, females also produce testosterone but less of it
-testosterone, oestrogen, oxytocin

Question 10

Testosterone

Answer 10

-type of androgen that is produced in testes and small amounts in ovaries
-produced at 8 wks gestation and controls development of male sex organs
-Nanne Van de Poll found female rats who were injected with testosterone were more aggressive than normal femal rats

Question 11

Oestrogen

Answer 11

-primary female hormone which plays role in menstrual cycle and reproductive system
-suggested that it causes high emotions and irritability during the menstrual cycle (PMS)
-PMS has been used in defence of crimes such as shoplifting and murder
-some researchers dispute PMS existence

Question 12

Oxytocin

Answer 12

-hormone that causes the uterus to contract during labour and stimulates lactation
-reduces stress hormone cortisol, so women can bond with baby after birth
-in stressful situations, cortisol dampens the fight or flight and triggers tend and befriend
-doesn’t happen in men as testosterone dampens the effects of oxytocin
-men produce less of this hormone

Question 13

Atypical sex chromosome pattern

Answer 13

-any sex chromium pattern that deviates from the usual XX or XY

Question 14

Klinefelters syndrome

Answer 14

-affects 1 in 550 males
-such males have XXY chromosomes (47 instead of 46)
-tall, thin, small infertile testes, enlarged breasts
-2/3 unaware of condition until they are trying to have a baby
Physical characteristics- reduced body hair, breast development, underdeveloped genitals
Psychological characteristics- poor memory, problem solving
Treatment- testosterone replacement therapy- tablet injection or gel

Question 15

Turner’s syndrome

Answer 15

-affects 1 in 2000 women
-have only one X chromosome
-pattern XO
Physical characteristics- no menstrual cycle, ovaries fail to develop, don’t develop breasts at puberty, webbed neck
Psychological characteristics- higher than average reading ability, lower performance on spatial mathematical and visual tasks
Treatment- hormone treatment to replace oestrogen and progesterone by tablet or patch. Growth hormone given by injection to increase height

Question 16

Cognitive explanations of gender development

Answer 16

Kohlberg’s theory
Gender schema theory

Question 17

Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 17

-child develops ideas on gender through their construction and interaction with world
-universal as all children go through same stages as process of maturation and socialisation
-children discover they’re male or female they identify with same sex
-predicts children pay attention to same sex people and seek gender role info
3 stages
1. Gender identity- 2-3 yrs, recognises they’re boy or girl and can label others by judging them in external factors such as clothes, don’t understand gender is permanent
2. Gender stability- 4-6 yrs, aware gender is fixed, can be confused by external changes eg. women with short hair
3. Gender constancy- 7-12, realise appearance and activity don’t change gender as is constant across time

Question 18

Gender schema theory
MTLBPRS

Answer 18

Martin and Halverson
-children motivated to acquire knowledge at an early age
-by 3 yrs children have rigid idea of what gender is
-learn gender related schemas from adults peers and media
-begun with in group and out group schemas with people who share same interests
-put out groups down to raise self esteem
-form own schema based on behaviours traits and roles and develops with experience
-beliefs are resilient as children ignore info that isn’t consistent with in group info
-schema start basic eg what men and women wear, develop to what they do

Question 19

Psychodynamic explanation for gender development

Answer 19

-freuds psychoanalytic theory
-Identification and internalisation

Question 20

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

Answer 20

-children pass through 5 stages from oral to genital
-gender development= stage 3/ phallic stage (3-6yrs)
-before then children= bi sexual as have no concept of gender identity
-oedipus complex- boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and jealous of father. Realise father has more power and fears castration so to resolve this, he gives up love for mother and identifies with father
-electra complex- girls have double resentment for mother as she’s a love rival for dad and fear she castrated them in the womb. This causes penis envy, which overtime is substituted by the desire to have children therefore they identify with mother

Question 21

Identification and internalisation

Answer 21

-both sexes identify with same sex parent to resolve respective complexes (want to be like them as they have desirable characteristics)
-they then internalise attitudes and values of same sex parent and take on their gender identity. Boys and girls both receive a second hand gender identity at the end of phallic stage

Question 22

Social learning theory of gender development

Answer 22

-behaviour is learned through observation + imitation
-nurture because it focuses on influence of enviro and role models
-behaviour is demonstrated by a role model and the imitated by the 4 mediational process (attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation)
-behaviour has to be modelled/ demonstrated first
-needs to be a model we identify with: high status and same sex
-motivated due to vicarious reinforcement- see model be rewarded or punished for behaviour, direct reinforcement- child being praised for doing gender specific behaviour, differential reinforcement- children are encouraged to show distinct gender appropriate behaviour

Question 23

Influence of culture on gender roles

Answer 23

Gender roles- set of behaviours or attitudes that are considered appropriate for one gender and inappropriate for us
Culture- ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular group of people or society
-cross cultural research informs us on the nature-nurture debate of gender roles
-if behaviour similar across cultures = innate, nature
-if behaviour culturally specific= nurture
-Cultural differences research
-cultural similarities research

Question 24

Study into cross cultural differences in gender roles

Answer 24

Mead
-3 tribal groups in New Guinea
Arapesh tribe- gentle and responsive, similar to the western stereotypical female
Mundugumor tribe- aggressive and hostile, similar to western stereotype of masculinity
Tchambuli tribe- women were dominant and organised village life, men were passive and considered ‘decorative’
-suggests gender roles may be culturally determined

Question 25

Studies into cross cultural similarities in gender roles

Answer 25

Buss- consistent pattern in male preferences in 37 countries. Women prefer a mate who can offer wealth and resources, whereas men prefer young and physically attractive women
Munroe + Munroe- found that in most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines (males breadwinners, females nurturers)

Question 26

Media and gender roles

Answer 26

-media provides role models which children could identify with and therefore learn gender appropriate behaviour via SLT
Rigid stereotypes:
Bussy + Bandura- suggest the media provide clear gender stereotypes, men are shown independent and ambitious, women not
Furnham + Farragher- found in TV ads, men are more likely to be shown in autonomous roles, whereas women shown in familial roles
McGhee + Frueh- found children with more exposure to media, display more gender stereotypical views
-these suggest that the media plays a role in widespread social stereotypes
-promotes what behaviour males and females can carry out, promoting self efficacy

Question 27

Gender dysphoria

Answer 27

-discomfort or distress caused by a mismatch between a person’s gender identity and their biological sex assigned at birth
-people with GD live as members of the opposite sex and use mannerism associated with the opposite gender
-recognised in DSM-5, has to be marked difference between individuals feelings on their gender for at least 6 months
-must cause significant stress or impairment in the patient’s life
-sometimes there’s a strong desire to get rid of biological sex characteristics, so do gender reassignment surgery

Question 28

Assessment of GD

Answer 28

-diagnosis made after in depth assessment by 2 or more specialists
-requires several sessions a few months apart
-may involve discussions with people the individual is close to

Question 29

Treatment for GD

Answer 29

-staff at gender identity clinic work with them to come up with treatment plan
-treatment aims to remove distressing feelings of having a mismatch between biological sex and gender identity
-some people may dress and live as the preferred gender
-others may take hormones or have surgery

Question 30

Gender queer-

Answer 30

-an umbrella term used to describe gender identities other than man and woman

Question 31

Biological explanations for gender dysphoria

Answer 31

Brain sex theory
-GD caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a person’s bio sex
-Ning Zhou- post mortem of 6 transgender people (male to female), found their BSTc was a similar size to female than male
-Kuijver- same brains, found their average neuron number was in the female range not male range

Genetic factors
-Hare- looked at DNA of 112 male to female trans. Found they had a longer androgen receptor gene, reducing the action of testosterone
-Heylens- 23 MZ, 21 DZ, where one twin diagnosed with GD. Found 39% concordance for MZ and 0% for DZ

Question 32

2 social psychological explanations of GD

Answer 32

-psychoanalytic theory
-cognitive explanation

Question 33

Psychoanalytic theory GD

Answer 33

-Ovesey + Person- found GD in males is due to extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is established .
-causes the child to fantasise of a symbiotic fusion with the mother to relieve the anxiety and therefore adopts her identity

Question 34

Cognitive explanation

Answer 34

Liben + Bigler
-extension of gender schema theory
-dual pathway
-1st pathway acknowledges the development of gender appropriate behaviour
-2nd pathway describes a individuals personal interests that may become more dominant in their activity
-eg. boy playing with dolls may develop a non sex typed schema which could cause androgynous behaviour or in some cases GD